An Exploratory Phenomenological Study of African American High School Students in Gifted Education Programs: Implications forTeachers and School Counselors

 Lamont A. Flowers, Ph.D., Yanmei Zhang, M.A., James L. Moore III, Ph.D.,
and Tiffany A. Flowers, M.A.  

Abstract:  This study utilized the phenomenological approach to explore the perceptions, attitudes, and experiences of African American high school students in a gifted education program. The results of the study indicated that numerous school-related problems hindered student achievement. As a way of retaining more African American students in gifted education programs, recommendations were made to teachers and school counselors.  

Introduction  

In recent years, there has been an increasing concern for African American students in gifted education programs among educational researchers (Ford & Harris, 1992, 1993, 1995; Ford, Harris, & Schuerger, 1993; Ford, Harris, Tyson, & Trotman, 2002; Ford & Moore, 2004a; Ford-Harris, Schuerger, & Harris, 1991; Moore, Ford, & Milner, 2005). In spite of this growing concern, the research literature pertaining to gifted African American students is scant. Ford et al. (2002) recently confirmed this disparity. In their study, they conducted an extensive search for articles in selected education journals from 1966 to 1996 and found that of the more than 2,500 articles published in these journals, less than 1% focused on gifted African American students. Following a review of these research studies, devoted particularly to gifted African American students, it was apparent that African American students encountered many school and non-school problems and often needed special services or accommodations to address their specific problems, needs, and concerns. Stated differently, because of family, social, economic, psychological, and cultural factors that often influence school outcomes for African American students in gifted education programs (Ford & Harris, 1992, 1995; Ford & Moore, 2004a; Grantham & Ford, 1998; Morris, 2002; Rowley & Moore, 2002), the research literature suggested that African American students may experience gifted programs differently from other students (e.g., White students) which may result in slightly different academic and social outcomes.   

Taken as a whole, the scant but growing research literature base on African American gifted students has concentrated on one of the following categories: (a) social, cultural, and psychological factors that affect African American students’ experiences and achievement in gifted education; (b) underrepresentation of African American students in gifted programs; and (c) perceptions and experiences of African American students in gifted programs. Thus, in the next section of this article, the research literature on African American students and gifted education was reviewed for each major category or theme.  

Factors that Affect African American Students’ Experiences and Achievement in Gifted Programs  

A review of the literature indicates that research has been instrumental in identifying several factors that impact gifted African American students’ school outcomes. For example, Ford-Harris et al. (1991), in their study of gifted African American students, asserted that gifted African American students encountered more obstacles to identity development than did gifted White students, and they often experienced more psychological and emotional problems than non-gifted African American students. In another study, Ford et al. (1993) also examined the racial identity development of gifted African American students as well as counseling issues for gifted African American students. They suggested some counseling interventions for gifted African American students that included establishing trusting relationships with gifted African American students, providing them with mentors and role models, and offering family counseling.  

In another significant study involving African American students in gifted programs, Ford and Harris (1993) identified the primary problems and concerns that African American students have in gifted programs, such as racial discrimination. Ford and Moore (2004a) recommended that school counselors play a major role in assisting these students with such challenges. Ford and Harris (1995) also recommended using racial identity theory to explore underachievement among gifted African American students. They asserted that issues related to racial identity must be explored to study the success and failure of gifted African American learners. They also suggested that school counselors must be better prepared to meet the needs of gifted African American students by engaging in the following activities: (a) taking continuing education courses; (b) participating in diversity training opportunities; and (c) conducting research on the experiences and concerns of students.  

Underrepresentation of African American Students in Gifted Programs  

In a recent article, Ford et al. (2002) suggested that the main barriers to recruitment and retention of African American students in gifted programs were deficit ideologies of gifted education as well as testing and assessment issues that often limit the access of African American students into gifted programs. For example, many educational professionals – teachers and school counselors – tend not to refer African American students for screening and placement in gifted programs (Grantham & Ford, 2003), and when they do refer these students, they are likely to use biased assessments or standardized tests to substantiate their recommendations (Ford, 1996; Ford et al., 2002; Grantham & Ford, 2003). In similar work, Ford and Harris (1993) examined the factors that hindered African American students’ participation in gifted programs and called for increased attention to the needs of gifted African American students.   

Over the last decade, other social scientists (Ford & Feist, 1993; Ford & Moore, 2004a, 2004b; Grantham & Ford, 2003) asserted that American public education has failed to address the needs of gifted African American students and suggested that educational reform is needed to ensure equity and excellence for gifted African American students. In another study, “Desegregating Gifted Education: A Need Unmet,” Ford (1995) noted that the major barriers that limited African American students’ access to gifted programs were the following: (a) the definition of giftedness; (b) standardized tests used to identify gifted students; (c) cultural differences in learning styles of African American students; (d) problems in identifying and recommending gifted students; (e) family background and family influences that may affect African American students’ achievement; and (f) the achievement of gifted students. In 1994, Ford and Webb discussed the issue of African American student representation in gifted programs and possible reasons for this underrepresentation. They suggested some strategies to desegregate gifted programs, which included new definitions of gifted and underachievement, multicultural preparation for teachers, increased gifted education preparation for teachers, increased commitment to the representation of African Americans in gifted education, parental involvement, assessment strategies, and strategies to keep African American students in gifted programs. Morris (2002) noted that racism undermined the participation of African American students in gifted programs and contended that the significance of race and racism should be examined in future research.  

In a study that included both gifted and non-gifted African American students, Flowers, Milner, and Moore (2003) found that teachers’ expectations of their educational future had a significant impact on African American students’ educational aspirations. The authors further noted that it was quite likely that these teachers operated, consciously or unconsciously, from racist or stereotypical belief systems, which in turn, impacted these students’ educational aspirations. In 2000, Bonner identified barriers that frequently impeded African American students from participating in gifted programs. Bonner first noted that the definition of giftedness is a problem because it excludes some African American students from being identified as gifted. He then argued that standardized testing should not be used as the primary criterion to identify gifted students. In addition, he believed that teacher nominations of gifted students that were based on the White, middle-class standard might not apply to African American students, due to their specific cultural and historical backgrounds and their different learning styles.  

Perceptions and Experiences of African American Students in Gifted Programs  

Research, examining the day-to-day realities of African American students in gifted programs, has also increased our understanding of African American students in gifted programs. For example, in a case study of the social needs of a gifted African American female student, Grantham and Ford (1998) discovered that the student had unique experiences that separated her from other White females in the gifted program. More specifically, the African American female student encountered more social, cultural, and psychological challenges and barriers than did the White female students. Furthermore, the student, in the aforementioned case study, felt isolated and excluded, and she presented difficulties in assimilating and socializing with her peers and teachers in the gifted classroom. Ford and Moore (2004a) refer to such challenges as the “black tax.” It is generally defined as the ongoing psychological and social burden that African Americans face being the minority or pioneer in non-traditional domains, such gifted education programs (Bailey & Moore, 2004; Moore, Flowers, Guion, Zhang, & Staten, 2004; Moore et al., 2005; Moore, Madison-Colmore, & Smith, 2003).  

To examine African American perceptions regarding the opportunity structure in America, Ford and Harris (1992) compared the American achievement ideology and achievement differentials among gifted and non-gifted African American students and found that gifted African American students perceived school to be more important than non-gifted African American students. In addition, gifted African American students were more supportive of the American ideology and were more likely to hold positive ideas and values about education and democracy. In another study about the American achievement ideology as perceived by African American students, Ford (1992) explored the perceptions of African American students regarding social, cultural, and psychological factors that influenced their achievement and underachievement. Ford’s study also revealed that gifted African American students were more likely to hold positive ideas about education and democracy.  

In 1996, Slanina used the case study approach to examine the factors that impact transitions between a general-educational program and a gifted program by exploring the perceptions of four African American male students who participated in a gifted program for three years and then returned to their neighborhood to go to junior high school. The study found that family support and having goals for the future positively impacted the students’ successful transitions. In addition, students’ personalities, peer influences, discrepancies in the way materials were presented in gifted programs and non-gifted programs, and communication issues also affected their transition as well. In 2002, Harmon conducted a qualitative research study to examine the experiences of gifted African American students. In this particular study, the African American students in the gifted program revealed difficulties in their interactions with White students and felt anger, due to the harassment they received from White students. They also expressed their dissatisfaction with the teachers, who they believed did not teach effectively and lacked an understanding and appreciation of African American culture and had low expectations of African American students.  

Despite the contribution that the research literature on African American students in gifted programs has made to enhance our understanding of these and related issues, it is clear that very few studies, if any, have been conducted to specifically examine African American students’ perceptions regarding how to improve gifted programs. Therefore, educational researchers do not know much about how African American students perceived their experiences in gifted programs and what barriers and problems they have from their own perspectives. Thus, more research is needed to better understand the experiences of African American students and how they perceive and interpret their experiences in order to help them to enhance their learning experiences and learning outcomes in gifted education programs. Toward that end, the primary research objective of this study was to explore African American students’ perceptions pertaining to school-based problems that hindered student achievement. This study also sought to obtain suggestions from African American students concerning strategies for improving gifted education and retaining more African American students in gifted school programs or accelerated classrooms (e.g., Advanced Placement courses).  

Method and Procedures  

As stated previously, the current study sought to examine the experiences, attitudes, and perceptions of African American high school students in gifted programs. Toward that end, the phenomenological approach was used for this study. As Husserl (1964) defined, phenomenological techniques are used to explore and examine the lived experiences of individuals. This qualitative research methodology seeks to thoroughly investigate specific and general ideas and information about an individual’s day-to-day experiences (Bursch, 1989). Kvale (1996) also stated that phenomenological studies investigate an individual’s perspective in order to grasp the complexity of their experiences. Employing the phenomenological approach enables a researcher to unassumingly, yet systematically, examine the co-researchers (i.e., the participants) and concentrate on the participants’ responses to gain a deeper understanding of participants’ experiences (Cross, Stewart, & Coleman, 2003). Because the purpose of the study was to explore the experiences of African American students in gifted programs and to understand how they perceived and interpreted their experiences, the phenomenological approach was deemed most appropriate for the present study.  

Participants  

The sample consisted of 13 African American high school students who participated in a gifted enrichment program in the summer at a large university in the Midwest. The program was designed to prepare gifted African American students to succeed in college by focusing on upper-level training in mathematics. Of the students participating in the study, the sample had a mean age of 16 and included eight female students and five male students. All students in the sample agreed to participate and share their insights and experiences for this study.  

Data Collection and Analysis  

Individual interviews were conducted with each student. In designing the interview protocol, the researchers were guided by the work of several social scientists that studied gifted African American students (e.g., Floyd, 1996; Ford, 1992, 1996; Ford et al., 1993; Ford-Harris et al., 1991; Fordham, 1988; Hemmings, 1996; O’Connor, 1997). Based on an extensive literature review of research on this topic, the following open-ended questions were developed and posed to the participants of the study: (a) What do you like and dislike about your school?; (b) Are there any teachers, students, or school rules that make it hard or difficult for you to do well in school and in gifted programs?; and (c) What recommendations do you have for improving gifted education at your school?  

The face-to-face interviews averaged about an hour each. Each interview was recorded on audiotape. To increase the accuracy of reporting, fieldnotes were also taken during the interviews. All interviews were transcribed in verbatim. More specifically, the researchers reviewed each transcript and carefully listened to each tape word-for-word, paying attention to all verbal and non-verbal communication (Ten Have, 1999). Meanwhile, other information collected from observations, during the interview, was incorporated into the transcripts to help capture and understand the participants’ responses and reactions to the interview questions. Moustakas’ (1994) methods for phenomenological analysis were used to analyze each transcript to get the meaning and essence of the individual experiences. Specifically, from the verbatim transcript of each interview, a “full textual-structural description” of the individual experience for African American high school students was obtained. Collectively, by comparing the common experiences and differences of the “individual textual-structural description” of all co-researchers’ and integrating the experiences of the group as a whole, the researchers constructed a “composite textual-structural description” of the meaning and essence of African American high school students’ experiences in gifted programs. The major themes expressed by the students (as well as students’ actual responses) were reported in the results section.  

Findings  

After rigorously analyzing the study’s data, three primary themes were identified (e.g., school-related issues that hindered student achievement, factors and strategies that contributed to gifted African American students’ success in school and gifted programs, and methods needed to retain more African American students in gifted school programs). More specifically, the participants in this study underscored their awareness of the problems in school that inhibited learning and academic achievement for African American students in general and African American students in gifted programs in particular. They also revealed the factors that they perceived to be important for their success in school in general and gifted programs in particular. Participants also provided suggestions for improving gifted programs and retaining more African American students in gifted programs.  

School-Related Issues that Hinder Student Achievement  

Teachers are primarily responsible for ensuring that African American students have appropriate learning experiences in the classroom. In order to improve African American students’ academic and social experiences in classroom settings, the participants noted that teachers should modify their behaviors and teaching style to accommodate the particular school environment and population of the students they serve. Specifically, one participant noted: “teachers need to update their teaching styles, so that we are not simply learning facts.” Another participant reported, “some teachers do not care if you learn the information or not.” The participants also indicated the importance of being taught by teachers who use their authority to discipline students appropriately. Furthermore, some participants suggested that the level of cultural awareness should be improved for teachers and other school personnel (e.g., school counselors). One participant even asserted, “Certain teachers are racist.” Other participants also remarked that they thought educational professionals, such as school counselors, were racist also.  

In addition, the participants also mentioned some other issues at school that affected them and other students negatively. Collectively, the participants referred to the lack of discipline expressed by students and the incessant violence at school as critical factors that inhibit achievement in schools. The participants also pointed out that a lack of encouragement from caring people in school (e.g., teachers and school counselors) prevented them and other students from doing well. Specifically, one participant mentioned: “Discouraging words and perceptions from teachers prevented students from doing well in school.” Meanwhile, some participants believed that when educational professionals (e.g., teachers and school counselors) treat all students fairly it ensures that students of all races will have an equal chance to do well in school. Aligned with this notion, one participant also noted “people with a strong support group have an advantage and are more likely to do well in school.”  

Factors and Strategies that Contributed to Gifted African American High School Students’ Success in School and Gifted Programs  

In the study, the participants identified a number of factors that they perceived to be important to their success in school and gifted programs. Most participants believed that care and encouragement from teachers and school counselors, high expectations and support from family, and support and encouragement from friends to be very important. Specifically, one student said: “I like teachers that become your friends.” Another student said: “I interact with the teachers well.” In regard to family support, one participant noted: “My family encouraged me to be the best I can be.” Another student noted: “My mother always says, I am counting on you.” As to support and encouragement from friends, one participant commented: “Most of my friends are honor students. They tell me to do the best I can.”  

The participants also discussed some strategies that helped them to be successful in school, such as studying for long hours, preparing for class, listening carefully in class, participating in class, asking questions in class, working in groups, asking friends for help, and helping other students with their course work. In addition, some students also offered strategies that they used to deal with obstacles in school. One student said: “I do not let anything affect my school work. My schooling is like a whole other life.” One student asserted: “I weed out negative people.” Another student also stated: “I try to keep my distance from educators that are racist.”  

Methods Needed to Retain More African American Students in Gifted School Programs  

In order to retain more African American students in gifted programs, the participants noted two major aspects of methods that are related to teachers and teaching. Some participants suggested that teachers should “be more enthusiastic about teaching” and “take pride in what they do.” One participant suggested that teachers should care more about if the students learn or not. Another participant noted that teachers could help him to learn more if they “push me more to make me give an effort in class.” This participant also hoped that teachers and school counselors would be “cheerleaders” for academic success. Other participants expressed that they wished that teachers and school counselors were friendlier to students in school settings.  

The participants also noted some strategies that would help to retain more African American students in gifted programs. Some participants suggested that teachers and school counselors should consider revising their educational practices. One participant hoped that these educational professionals could incorporate more technology in their work. Similarly, another student added that teachers and school counselors should “have more hands-on activities and apply the material to everyday life.” Some participants also noted that teachers should grab the attention of the students by incorporating a sense of humor in their work. In addition, the students suggested group activities and inter-class competitions as a way of helping teachers to make classes more interesting. On the other hand, the participants also suggested that both teachers and school counselors should help African American students in gifted programs to better prepare for college: “If educators could get more college preparatory work in the classroom, it would be much better. Then students would not have to be so afraid of the college curriculum.” These general suggestions indicated that African American students in gifted programs understand the importance of quality school programs and instructional strategies in retaining African American students in gifted programs.  

Discussion and Implications  

Floyd (1996) studied resilience utilizing 20 African American high school seniors from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds who were high achievers. In the study, Floyd found that family support, the influences of teachers, coaches, and school counselors, and personal beliefs such as being optimistic were all associated with their resilience and contributed to their academic success. Because schools, teachers, and school counselors are important in helping students succeed in educational settings, the findings of the present study should be used by school policymakers, teachers, and school counselors to provide more insight concerning the experiences and perceptions of African American students in gifted programs in order to increase their chances of success in school. To assist in this regard, the present study’s findings contain information regarding ways to consider how schools and school practices can be modified and adapted to address the issues and concerns of African American students in gifted programs.   

One of the important findings of the study was that some gifted African American students were dissatisfied with the educational services offered in their schools. This finding raises important questions regarding academic achievement and satisfaction, especially in culturally diverse settings. As the student population in American schools is becoming more and more diverse, it is very important that educational professionals become multiculturally competent (Flowers, 2003; Flowers et al., 2003; Milner, Flowers, Moore, Moore, & Flowers, 2003). Harmon (2002), after studying gifted inner-city African American students, also voiced the same concern. She suggested “more attention needs to be given to the impact of cultural competence, culturally relevant teaching, and multicultural education on the achievement of African American and other minority students” (p. 75). Harmon further believed that in order to meet the needs of gifted minority students, teachers need to have training in multicultural education, they need to understand the needs of gifted minority students and the potential problems they may encounter in gifted programs, and develop programs that meet the needs of these students from diverse cultural backgrounds.  

Robins, Lindsey, Lindsey, and Terrell (2002) also recommended that teachers should be culturally proficient in order to teach effectively in a diverse society. They identified the essential skills of the culturally proficient instructor. They believe a culturally proficient instructor should be able to understand different cultures, value diversity, adapt to diversity, and be competent to deal with the differences by adapting programs and practices to teach diverse students effectively. Robins et al. also recommended that culturally proficient teachers should be able to evaluate their own cultural beliefs and be aware of how their cultural norms affect individuals from different cultures.   

In order for teachers to teach African American students in gifted programs effectively, teachers should be aware of the specific characteristics of gifted African American students and how their cultural, family, and social backgrounds affect their experiences in the gifted program and the way they learn. Based on this knowledge, teachers can develop culturally responsive curricula as well as an instructional style that better meets the special needs of these students. It is also important that school counselors are multiculturally competent. In 1988, Parker discussed qualities of culturally flexible counselors, which include: (a) awareness of their own culture and values; (b) knowledge of other cultures; (c) establishing partnerships with clients; (d) utilizing appropriate skills to help diverse clients; and (e) interacting comfortably with others.  

To be culturally competent, school counselors should understand the unique problems that gifted African American students have to help them with their personal and academic development in gifted programs (Flowers et al., 2003; Ford & Moore, 2004a; Grantham & Moore, 2003; Moore et al., 2005). School counselors, similar to other educational professionals, are well positioned to assist gifted African American students. They are able to provide a variety of support and guidance to these students. More specifically, school counselors are able to offer both complimentary and supplementary services to assist gifted students with academic challenges as well as cultural, social, and emotional issues (Ford & Moore, 2004a; Moore, in press). These school counseling services may focus on enhancing students’ motivation to achieve, completing homework and class work tasks to the best of their abilities, and improving students’ self-efficacy or academic skills to avoid academic shortcomings (Ford & Moore, 2004a; Grantham & Ford, 2003; Moore, in press). For example, school counselors can offer special topic workshops on study skills, test taking, and time management. These kinds of school counseling activities give gifted students opportunities to improve on or develop “soft” skills that are essential for school success, especially in gifted education (Moore, in press).  

School counselors can also offer small or large group counseling activities to assist gifted African American students with establishing meaningful relationships with other African American peers and to help decrease possible feelings of isolation and alienation (Grantham & Ford, 2003). According to Grantham and Ford (2003), such social and group experiences give these students the safe environments to talk about their experiences in gifted education programs as well as express their feelings about being in such school atmospheres. Perhaps more importantly, the school counselor can serve as a good resource for gifted African American students (Moore, in press; Moore et al., 2004), especially when they align their programs with the cultural and social realities of these students (Lee, 2001).  

In high schools around the country, many African American students are not fairing well in gifted education because they feel unsupported (Howard, 2003) or because of the previously mentioned “black tax” phenomenon (Ford & Moore, 2004a). It is quite clear that gifted African American high school students experience many challenges in various educational domains, including gifted education (Flowers et al., 2003; Ford & Moore, 2004a; Grantham & Ford, 2003; Howard, 2003; Moore, 2003; Moore et al., 2004; Moore et al., 2003). Similar to the other social domains in society, African American students attend schools that rarely affirm their racial and scholar identities (Grantham & Ford, 2003). In turn, these experiences often create psychological and social challenges for gifted African American students. School counselors, perhaps more so than any other educational professional, are in the best position to assist and advocate for gifted African American students (Moore, in press; Moore et al., 2004).  

Conclusion  

Based on the findings of this study, it is clear that educational professionals, such as teachers and school counselors, can play a pivotal role in the lives of gifted African American high school students. Both school professionals can use their educational training and expertise to improve not only these students’ academic outcomes but also school experiences in gifted education programs. The students in this study provided the needed groundwork for common concerns experienced by many gifted African American students in various high schools around the country. Although the findings were insightful and conclusive to the sample studied, it is important that researchers do not generalize the results to other gifted African American students. Stated differently, the current study is significant in that it is one of the few studies that used qualitative methods to examine the perceptions and experiences of African American students in gifted programs. However, because of the sampling procedures and the analytical techniques utilized in the present study, the findings should not be generalized to all African American students in gifted programs.  

Furthermore, the researchers of this study suggest that additional qualitative research techniques should be employed to study the beliefs and perceptions of African American high school students in gifted education programs. For example, longitudinal qualitative inquiry such as ethnography should be employed to study multiple issues related to African Americans in gifted programs. These issues may include but are not limited to, students’ self-perceptions of their academic motivation or academic self-concept and the transferability of college preparatory skills (e.g., time management and study skills). Studying issues related to gifted African American high school students could provide insight into issues related to college readiness, college recruitment and retention, and academic achievement in high school and college.  

About the Authors:  Dr. Lamont A. Flowers is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Leadership, Policy and Foundations and Associate Director of the Institute of Higher Education in the College of Education at the University of Florida. Yanmei Zhang is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Educational Leadership, Policy and Foundations in the College of Education at the University of Florida.  Dr. James L. Moore III is an assistant professor in counselor education in the College of Education and Affiliated Scholar at The John Glenn Institute at The Ohio State University. Dr. Moore is also a LASER Research Associate at the Center for Action Research on Urban Schools and Effective Leadership at the University of South Florida. Tiffany A. Flowers is a doctoral student in the Language, Literacy, and Culture program in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Iowa. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to the first author at Institute of Higher Education , College of Education , University of Florida , Gainesville , FL 32611-7049 USA ; e-mail lflowers@coe.ufl.edu . 

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