Group Mentoring with Urban African American Female Adolescents  

Cheryl Holcomb-McCoy, Ph.D.  

Abstract:  Given the growing number of African American female adolescents experiencing depression, teenage pregnancy, suicide, and delinquent behaviors, educators (e.g., teachers, school counselors, and administrators) must begin to develop interventions that are specifically designed to address this population's needs. This article presents a group mentoring approach to working with urban African American female adolescents. The approach is unique in that it integrates an Afrocentric worldview (e.g., Nobles, 1991) into a two-dimensional framework, comprising of both mentoring and group counseling. Each dimension of the approach is described and implications for the evaluation of the approach are given.   

Introduction  

There has been a growing body of literature pertaining to the developmental issues and needs of African American adolescent females (Boyd-Franklin, 1991; Fordham, 1993; Harris, 1992; Holcomb-McCoy & Moore-Thomas, 2001; Muller, 2000). The increase of literature is due, in part, to the growing numbers of African American females experiencing depression (White, 1990), eating disorders (Lester & Petrie, 1998), poor nutrition (Halpern, Udry, Campbell, & Suchindran, 1999), teenage pregnancy (Dixon, Schoonmaker, & Philliber, 2000), suicide (Gibbs, 1988), and AIDS (Archie-Booker, Cervero, & Langone, 1999). The literature also indicates that urban African American female adolescents implement more self-destructive behaviors and opportunity-constraining behaviors (e.g., adolescent pregnancy) than African American males who tend to be involved in more serious criminal activities (Rozie-Battle, 2002). Overall, it is important to remember that these concerns occur within the context of a society that has historically devalued and portrayed African American women either as poor, welfare-dependent, or as mothers of illegitimate, impoverished, and delinquent children (Coultas, 1989; Patterson, 2004).  

In the research literature, there has even been a growing concern regarding African American adolescent females and crime involvement. A recent report indicated that the crime rate for African American adolescent females has increased by 50% between 1968 and 1994 (Molidor, 1996). Gang involvement, among African American adolescent females, has also increased in the past two decades. Walker-Barnes and Mason (2001) suggested that African American girls turn to gangs for protection not only from other gangs but also from community violence and abusive families.            

In order to assist urban African American adolescent females who are participating in destructive activities, it is essential that teachers, school counselors and other helping professionals understand their unique challenges, based solely on their race and gender. For example, African American adolescent females are often stereotyped as wild, sexually promiscuous and amoral as opposed to being perceived as young, naïve, and immature during a period of rapid and normative development (Stephens & Phillips, 2003). This faulty perception influences others’ interactions with African American adolescent females and characterizes many of African American adolescent females’ experiences in schools. For African American female adolescents, issues of race and gender identity are especially important, as these interact to create unique experiences of stress and dissonance. All of these issues pose risks for African American adolescent females’ health and development; however, these risks can be offset by appropriate interventions, which allow African American female adolescents to adapt and cope with the challenges they face.            

Given the increasing concerns of this population, this article presents a group mentoring approach for working with urban African American female adolescents to reduce self-destructive behaviors (e.g., sexual promiscuity, drug use, and self/other directed violence) and to promote their healthy social, emotional, and academic development. The approach presented is based on traditional African cultural systems and ethos. More specifically, the individual is viewed in the context of the group or community (Nobles, 1991). As such, the group-mentoring concept subscribes to a collective approach for mentoring young people of African descent. Accordingly, mentoring is conceptualized as requiring the efforts of the entire community as opposed to relying on one-to-one mentoring relationships. It is believed that African American girls will be able to observe and learn through contact and interaction with a collective group of African American women who embody varied lived experiences, interests, personalities, and perspectives on gender and ethnicity.  Although typical mentoring programs are established by matching a suitable adult or older youth with a younger person, some researchers (e.g., Flaxman & Ascher, 1992) have discussed the difficulty of matching mentors to mentees or developing “planned” mentoring relationships. Therefore, by allowing African American girls and women to interact as a group, the hope is that natural mentoring will occur.  Natural mentoring is typically formed through friendship, collegiality, teaching, coaching, and counseling (Flaxman & Ascher, 1992).  

Despite the interest in cultural competence and sensitivity within the education and counseling fields, there remains a considerable need for interventions that are Afrocentric and culturally responsive. African American students in urban public schools are not receiving, in many cases, equitable educational resources when compared to their White, suburban counterparts. Perhaps of greatest concern is that African American academic achievement levels are significantly less than their White and Asian peers (Education Trust, 2004). For instance, too few African American students read or do mathematics at proficient levels. Twelve percent of African American fourth graders reach proficient or advanced levels, while 61% have not been taught to read at the basic level (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2000). The same is true in mathematics. By the end of high school, African American students have mathematical skills that are virtually the same as those of eighth grade White students (NCES, 2000). As such, it is necessary for helping professionals (e.g., school counselors) and educators to develop some understanding of the sociocultural context of the students with whom they are working. When working with African American students, a basic understanding of Afrocentric thought and values can help to contextualize the experiences and behaviors of students. The approach recommended in this article consists of the cultural ingredients that are optimal for enhancing the academic, social, emotional, and career development of urban African American female adolescents.  

Cultural Framework            

Several scholars (Bynum, 1999; Nobles, 1991) have noted the importance of incorporating the African worldview as the basis for understanding the psychological functioning and behavior of African Americans. According to Nobles (1991), traditional West African belief systems survived the Middle Passage (i.e., transport of African captives to the West) and hundreds of years of enslavement, and continue to persist among present day African Americans.  People of African descent in the United States have maintained cultural traditions through institutions, such as churches, families, clubs, fraternities, and sororities, and local community groups. Therefore, to better intervene and work with African American girls, it is critical that educators and helping professionals revisit some of the traditional African cultural beliefs and practices.    

The basic philosophical bases of the African worldview or culture are guided by the ideology of "human-nature unity" (Kambon, 1998). This guiding ethos stems from the belief that there are separate worlds of thought for people of African and European heritage. According to Kambon (1996), the underlying theme of the European worldview is control over nature. In this worldview, there is an ever-present conflict between humanity (self) and nature (phenomenal experience); nature is considered threatening and hostile. This worldview promotes the values of autonomy, individualism, competition, and materialism. The African worldview, on the other hand, promotes harmony with nature. Therefore, one cannot separate humanity from nature; they are interdependent. Kambon (1996) asserted that this principle "emphasizes that the basic striving of human life is toward seeking to maintain balance or harmony among the various aspects of the universe, a striving to maintain a complementary coexistence with the universal order” (p. 62).  Included in this worldview are the values of communalism, affect, spirituality and the concept of self as an individual with a collective responsibility to the group.  

Another component of the African worldview is the interest of the group above individual interest (Nobles, 1991). According to Gyekye (1996), in African societies, the individual is taught to (a) identify with the group if she is to have meaning in life, (b) appreciate her obligations to the members of the group, and (c) think about and act for the survival for the group as a whole. As a result of this worldview, an individual’s success is measured by the extent of his or her contributions to the family, community, or nation.  

A third African worldview is the notion of the family as extending beyond the immediate household. The family is perceived as comprising several households, which form a community. These fictive kinship systems exist in African American families today and include individuals unrelated biologically. The importance of these unique family relationships is that all members of the family, regardless of biological relationship, share the same loyalties, responsibilities, and cooperation as biological relatives (Dodson, 1997). Essentially, a sense of collective responsibility exists within African American communities and has been a source of survival (Baldwin, 1991).  

Group-Mentoring Approach            

Many researchers (e.g., Mazama, 2001; Schiele, 1997) have examined the use of Afrocentric interventions in educational and clinical settings. For instance, Banks, Hogue, Liddle, and Timberlake (1996) found that an Afrocentric-focused social skills training curricula yielded decreases in anger in 64 inner-city African American youth. Banks et al. also found that after completing the social skills training, the students’ teachers and parents reported increases in their students’ assertiveness and self-control. In another study, Belgrave, Chase-Vaughn, Gray, and Addison (2000) found that a culture- and gender-specific intervention designed to strengthen resiliency among poor African American preadolescent girls, significantly increased African American girls’ Afrocentric values, ethnic identity, and physical appearance concept. For the most part, these researchers argued that many aspects of current interventions typically used in educational and clinical settings are not relevant or useful for African Americans (Harvey & Rauch, 1997). Eurocentric interventions are grounded in the view that the individual is an isolated entity “even if the interaction between the individual and the social environment is acknowledged” (Schiele, 1997, p. 802). On the other hand, one working from an Afrocentric perspective integrates African values into the process and content of a determined intervention. Afrocentric interventions, thus, help individuals connect with African and African American values of equality, cooperation, reconciliation, respect, and sharing. Connectedness to one’s African American heritage and to others of the same ethnic heritage is nurtured through group experiences, such as the group mentoring program for African American female adolescents described in this article.  

The basic premise of the group mentoring approach is that the interpersonal relationship and connection between African American adolescent females and positive African American women can create positive behavior change in the girls. In addition, it is assumed that this Afrocentric approach can assist African American adolescent females with developing: (a) a sense of interconnectedness with their community and environment; (b) a sense of “wholeness;” (c) a tendency to advocate for cultural pluralism, and to fight political, economic, and cultural oppression; and (d) a desire to build on positive attributes of their community. In general, the use of positive role modeling and dialogue exchange with other African American adolescent females are the strategies intended to promote positive change in the behaviors and attitudes of this group.  

The approach has five principles that guide the interactions between the African American women (mentors) and the African American adolescent females (mentees). Those West African principles are (a) group above self, (b) respect for self and others, (c) responsibility for self and community, (d) reciprocity, and (e) authenticity ("keeping it real"). The “group above self” principle is taken directly from the West African value system that places the needs of the group above those of the individual. This principle is critical to the interactions and behaviors of the mentors and mentees. A primary goal of the group is to foster a collective orientation and finding harmony between the group members and their community. This is also an important part of the group because many urban African American youth are socialized (for survival purposes) to act in their own self-interest (Franklin, 1999). This type of behavior is often counterproductive and acts against the positive progression of the African American community.   

Respect for self and others is an important principle of an Afrocentric intervention because it relates to valuing oneself and others in the community.  Given the oppressive history of African Americans and African American women in the United States, self-respect is critical. Feeling a sense of self-worth and maintaining a sense of self-love are essential elements of an Afrocentric perspective. Self-worth and self-love can be encouraged through activities focused on health and beauty care, exploration of feelings, and researching family histories. In addition to self-respect, respecting others is also essential. The West African value of harmony and balance in nature and towards other people speaks to the importance of valuing others and respecting others’ differences. Respecting others’ can be fostered through visiting and assisting the elderly in the African American community, tutoring younger African American girls in local schools, and learning pro-social skills that can assist with peer relationships. It is this sense of balance and harmony - loving oneself and others - that is intended to guide the behavior of the African American girls in relation to each other, the mentors, and people in the community.  

Responsibility for community is consistent with the other principles that reflect West African emphasis on collective orientation or responsibility. It builds on the respect for self and others principle but expands the respect to include one's community. To better influence the self-worth of African American girls and to lessen the degree of alienation from one’s community and society, one must take a holistic perspective that emphasizes the influence of community factors on the development of African American children. Within the group mentoring model presented here, the participants are encouraged to focus on enhancing and “lifting up” their communities through activities such as community beautification projects, volunteering at community agencies (e.g., homeless shelters), and advocating for their community’s needs (e.g., AIDS education, increased child care options). Through these activities, the participants in the group-mentoring program develop a sense of pride in their community, and ultimately, a sense of empowerment to improve their respective communities.  

The principle, reciprocity, denotes individuals' ability to give as much as they get from interpersonal relationships. It is often viewed as the expectation that all good deeds will be returned (Nobles, 1991). In the context of the African American extended family network, family members often make sacrifices to enable younger members of the family to secure a good education. The extended family network may also be involved in collective support to an individual family member to help him or her achieve a higher education, make a transition into a specific kind of work, or establish independent residence (Hines & Boyd-Franklin, 1996). This reciprocity or “reciprocal obligation” (McAdoo, 1978) gives support to this notion of “giving back” to one’s community and family. Furthermore, it is this principle that fosters a willingness in African American adolescent females to be mentors for younger African American females. This cycle of mentoring and “giving back” to others can promote an on-going mentoring process in the community.  

Finally, the authenticity principle is necessary for maintaining the group's integrity and earning the trust of its members. The sincerity, genuineness, and consistency in interpersonal interactions between mentors and group members demonstrate this principle. Authenticity fosters an environment in which the members can feel comfortable and safe. Hence, this sense of authenticity creates a respite for the group members, who live in an often dangerous and unsafe community.  

Structure and Format of Approach  

The approach introduced in this article is designed for African American adolescent females (ages 12-18) who are experiencing emotional, behavioral, and/or academic concerns and is intended for use in public schools. The approach has two components: (a) a group-counseling component and (b) a mentoring component. The group-counseling component consists of weekly group sessions (at least an hour) with African American group counselors who are trained, certified and/or licensed to provide such services. The mentoring component consists of mentors meeting with the girls at least twice monthly for cultural, educational, volunteer-oriented, and/or recreational outings. The mentors attend the group counseling sessions, when applicable, and discuss issues pertinent to African American adolescent females. More information on each component is described below and a sample timeline is given in the Appendix.  

Mentoring Component            

Mentoring programs for African American youth are growing at a rapid pace across the United States (Grossman & Garry, 1997). These programs differ in their curricula but most emphasize the relationship between a disadvantaged or troubled African American youngster and a caring, responsible African American adult. This relationship generally involves spending quality time together and providing support and guidance, with the aim of helping the young African American youngster better negotiate life’s difficulties. The impact of mentoring programs designed for African American students is inconsistent. For instance, Jekielek, Moore, Hair, and Scarupa (2002) found that African American students with the highest risk of dropping out benefited the most from mentoring. Their grades improved and they were more likely to pursue postsecondary education. They also found that the more positive the perception of the mentoring relationship, the better outcome for the students involved. Yet, in another study, Royse (1998) found that African American at-risk youth who participated in a mentoring program called the “Brothers Project” illustrated no statistically significant differences between the youth participating in the mentoring group and the control group on the variables of self-esteem, attitudes about drugs and alcohol, grade point average, school absences, and disciplinary infractions. And, in another study, McPartland and Nettles (1991) found that mentoring had positive effects on school attendance and grades in English but not on promotion rates or standardized test scores.  While these studies’ findings are contradictory, there have been compelling testimonials by people - youth and adults alike - who have themselves benefited from the positive influence of an older person who helped them endure social, academic, career, or personal crises.            

There are many theoretical reasons to expect that mentoring programs can help African American youth. Within a social support framework, mentoring can often provide some of the social support that is needed for African American children who lack support from family members, community members, or school personnel. In addition, some researchers have found that mentoring programs provide African American youth with role models in environments that lack African American models in specific roles or positions. For instance, an African American female pilot may be an appropriate model for African American adolescent females who have never seen an African American woman in such a role in their community. In other words, mentors can serve as models with which youth might identify, thus leading them to a broader sense of awareness, increased socially appropriate behavior, increased levels of self-efficacy, and higher postsecondary and career aspirations.   

Although the research on the efficacy of mentoring is mixed, mentoring has been reported to have helped African American youth feel better about themselves and to engage in less destructive behaviors toward themselves and others (Keating, Tomishima, Foster, & Alessandri, 2002). For these reasons, the author believes that mentoring is a useful and beneficial intervention when working with African American female adolescents. However, in keeping with the African value of communalism, the mentoring in the approach described here is implemented in a collective group rather than one-to-one. All of the adolescent females who participate in the group-mentoring program have access to all of the mentors rather than attempting to match the mentors and mentees.  

As stated previously, the mentees who participate in the group mentoring approach should be African American adolescent females from urban communities who have presented with emotional, academic, and/or behavioral concerns. These adolescent females should be carefully screened to determine their appropriateness for the group. It is recommended that screening interviews be implemented with each girl and that at least one of the girl’s guardians or parents be present at the interview. Questions such as, “Do you have any children that need your support after school or on weekends?” “Do you frequently use any type of chemical substance (e.g., alcohol, marijuana, cocaine),” and “Have you ever been involved in therapy or counseling?" should be asked. Some African American adolescent females may be in need of more intense services (e.g., substance abuse treatment, psychotherapy) while others might need additional support for participation in the program (e.g., childcare). Criteria used for the selection of participants to the group-mentoring program might include expressed interest in the group, lack of behavioral and/or psychological disorder, and parent commitment and permission. Counselors, teachers, parents, or any other caregiver can refer potential mentees to the program through referral questionnaires distributed at schools, by contacting mental health professionals supervising the program, or by contacting community agencies that have information about the program.  

The mentors that participate in this approach should be women of African or African American descent, who show an interest and commitment to helping young African American adolescent females succeed. Considering that the program is Afrocentric in nature, the use of mentors from other ethnic groups would not be effective. It is important for the mentors to be able to share experiences and stories related to their ethnicity and heritage. This is crucial for building the connectedness between the mentors and mentees and could not be done if the mentors were of another ethnic background.  

The primary role of the mentors is to engage the mentees in healthy interpersonal relationships, model pro-social behavior, lead discussions regarding issues pertinent to African American adolescent females (e.g., sexuality, skin color issues, education, and careers), organize bi-monthly (typically on weekends) recreational and volunteer activities, and participate in the group counseling component. Recreational activities might include outings to cultural sites, trips to local parks, dining at local restaurants, shopping, movies, and in-house activities (e.g., pizza parties, video parties). Volunteer activities might include volunteering at a local homeless shelter, planting flowers at a local school, preparing meals for elderly members of the community, and tutoring African American elementary students. The volunteer activities are important because they reflect the African value of reciprocity.  

Before beginning and during their mentoring experience, the mentors are required to participate in several didactic training sessions conducted by African American mental health providers, who have expertise in counseling African American adolescent females. The training should cover topics that are relevant to the group's goals and Afrocentric framework. Possible topics for the training seminars include: (a) developing effective mentoring relationships, (b) working with abused and neglected children, (c) understanding developmental and emotional issues faced by African American girls, (d) enhancing communication skills, and (e) integrating Afrocentric principles in one's daily life. The training sessions can also be used as a place for mentors and school personnel to communicate about pertinent school issues. Moreover, the training sessions allow the mentors’ time to explore the psychological impact of their own personal adversities and to articulate their expectations for the mentoring program. The mentors should be encouraged to reflect on their own experiences as African American women, and discuss relationships with females who helped shape their lives.  

Group-Counseling Component  

There is extensive literature that suggests the appropriateness of group work with African Americans, particularly homogeneous groups “grounded in the African American worldview” (Brinson & Lee, 1997; Williams, Frame, & Green, 1999). According to Merta (1999), homogeneous group work with African Americans is appropriate because of the “safety in numbers” principle that makes it easier for some African Americans to disclose before a group than an individual professional helper. Group work is also appropriate when working with African Americans because the values inherent in groups is consistent with African and African American values of strong kinship ties and an emphasis on community and social responsibility for others, even those outside of one’s immediate family (Perrone & Sedlacek, 2000). Most importantly, Afrocentric group work has been found as an effective means to connect African American women around shared cultural experiences (Brown, Lipford-Sanders, & Shaw, 1995).  

When implementing the group mentoring approach, it is critical that the African American adolescent females understand and “buy into” the concept of group counseling. First, it is imperative that they agree to attend all of the sessions and to participate in group activities. During the initial screening interview, the group leader should explain the process of group work and the group leader’s expectations. A contract might even be developed for the African American adolescent females to sign to ensure a commitment to the group-counseling component.            

The on-going group counseling sessions should be conducted on a weekly basis during regular school hours and should be facilitated by African American mental health professionals.  Implementing the group component during regular school hours is critical because it not only reflects the importance of the group but also it improves the group members' school and group attendance.  The group principles, which are grounded in African-centered values should be presented to the girls and discussed in the first session. The group principles should be used at every opportunity to reinforce positive group behavior. Since many African American adolescent females may approach the group process with some anxiety, distrust, and apprehension, the group leader should focus primarily on developing a trusting relationship with the adolescent females in the beginning sessions. By briefly and simply describing the counseling process and providing time for the girls to ask questions about the group, the group leader will start the process of building a caring and safe environment in which to self-disclose and participate in group activities.   

The group session topics should stem from the African American adolescent females' interests but should also include activities that are preplanned by the group leader and the mentors. The African American adolescent females should be engaged in discussions around a number of relevant topics (e.g., sexuality and families). Many of these discussions can be facilitated with the use of books and other media (e.g., videos, TV shows). For instance, the movie "Love and Basketball" with its family-oriented theme, might be used to illustrate family as well as male-female relationships. The emotions portrayed in the movie (e.g., love, hurt, indecisiveness, loss) give the group leader an opportunity to explore some of the African American adolescent females’ feelings regarding their relationships with others in their lives. In addition to using media, other activities can be employed for the purpose of facilitating therapeutic movement in the group. For example, the African American adolescent females might be required to construct a collage of African American women in various settings and careers, using various African American magazines (e.g., Ebony, Jet, and Essence).  The group leader can use the collage to discuss which African American women in the collage they identify most with and which women were most appealing. Other activities could include: (a) exploring the meaning of African values and implications for African American girls and women; (b) discussing spirituality and the meaning of spirituality from an Afrocentric perspective; (c) utilizing case scenarios depicting problems involving racism, sexism, and/or classism; and (d) introducing goal development and developing goals for the future.   

Evaluation of the Approach  

At the end of each academic school year, the African American adolescent females should be required to reflect (either written or orally) on the effectiveness of each component as well as the overall group-mentoring program. One questions that should be asked is, "Describe how the mentoring experience has been useful to you as a student at ____ School?" Also, the African American adolescent females should be asked to evaluate the usefulness of the approach's African framework. The African American adolescent females might be asked, "What do you believe is the value of "respecting oneself and others" or the value of "reciprocity?" The responses to these end-of-the-year evaluations are important to continued effective implementation of the approach.  

Because ethnic minority students, particularly African American students, often struggle with a low sense of adequacy, feelings of isolation, low academic motivation, and low self-efficacy (Ford, 1991; Schunk, 1991), providers of the group mentoring approach should evaluate the effect of this approach on these types of indicators or characteristics. Likewise, research that links the effectiveness of this approach with academic achievement, attendance, and other indicators of student success are warranted. There is also a critical need for instrumentation that measures the African American adolescent females’ ability to apply African principles to their daily lives. Future research is needed that focuses on the development of an instrument that can indicate African American females level of respect for their community, their level of respect for themselves, or their willingness to ‘give back’ to their community. In addition, evaluation procedures should be utilized that examine the process in which the approach is implemented. For example, how effective is this approach when mentors meet with mentees once a month rather than bi-monthly?  Or, how effective is the group counseling component when the sessions are limited to one hour as opposed to two hours?

Conclusion  

Acceptance of Afrocentric interventions, as the one described in this article, as valid interventions for all practitioners rather than as a tool to be used only by African American mental health professionals is essential. Although the group mentoring approach described involves the participation of African American mental health providers, it is hoped that with extensive training, non-African American professionals will be able to implement similar interventions or at least components of such interventions in the future. In order for these interventions to be used on a large scale, there is a need for training and/or re-training of current professionals in an Afrocentric framework. It is clear that the implementation of the group mentoring approach presented here will require an investment of time from both helping professionals and community members, and it requires a willingness on their part to examine the history and experiences of African American women in the United States.   

There are clear benefits to this group mentoring approach because of its incorporation of African values and an Afrocentric perspective. By incorporating values that are in sync with the participants, they feel validated and respected and in turn, will likely be more receptive to the process and outcome of the intervention. As such, the approach proposed here will likely produce positive results among African American girls rather than attitudes that result in feelings of being oppressed and misunderstood.  

About the Author:  Dr. Cheryl Holcomb-McCoy is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling and Personnel Services at the University of Maryland at College Park.  Her scholarly interests include multicultural self-efficacy and competence of school counselors, socio-cultural influences on the academic achievement of African American students, and school counselor preparation.  Address correspondence to the author at Department of Counseling and Personnel Services, University of Maryland, 3214 Benjamin Building, College Park, MD 20742 USA; email ch193@umail.umd.edu.

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Appendix

Sample Timeline of the Group Mentoring Program (First Year)