Special Theme Issue  

Promoting Academic Achievement for African American Students in Kindergarten to Twelfth Grade (K-12) Urban Settings: Implications for Teachers, Counselors,
Social Workers, Psychologists, and Administrators  

Guest Editors  

Chance W. Lewis, Ph.D. and James L. Moore III, Ph.D.  

African American Students in Kindergarten to Twelfth Grade (K-12)
Urban Settings

Over the past 20 years, a plethora of research has critically examined the academic achievement of African American students in kindergarten to twelfth grade (K-12) urban settings. These critical examinations have been chronicled in journal articles, research briefs, reports, and books detailing the problems African American students face in their pursuits of education (Grantham & Ford, 2003; Howard, 2003; Flowers, Milner, & Moore, 2003; Moore, Madison-Colmore, & Smith, 2003; Ogbu, 2004). Far too many urban African American students, especially at the elementary and secondary levels, are not making adequate progress in their academic subjects and on various high-stakes standardized tests. As a result, many urban school systems in America are, increasingly, becoming concerned about meeting yearly student achievement requirements, mandated by state and federal laws. The basis of these legislations requires school systems to improve student achievement. However, many school systems, urban schools in particular, are not meeting these yearly student achievement requirements.  

Over the last two decades, educational researchers (Bell Kaplan, 1999; Ford, 1996; Ford & Harris, 1999; Ford & Moore, 2004; Moore, Ford, & Milner, 2005; Talbert-Johnson, 2004) have tried many ways to explain the academic achievement problems related to African American students in K-12 urban settings. Toward that end, various educational and sociological theories (e.g., deficit-deprivation theory, theory of structural inequality, the “acting-white” theory, peer-pressure and the lure of the street life theory, the parents are at faulty theory, underprepared teachers theory, and low expectations theory) have been chronicled in both scientific and popular literature as to why African American students do not achieve at the same rates as their counterparts, especially in urban elementary and secondary settings. The purpose of this special theme issue, “Promoting Academic Achievement for African American Students in K-12 Urban Settings: Implications for Teachers, Counselors, Social Workers, Psychologists, and Administrators,” was to bring together a cross-section of educational scholars and researchers to focus on the issues, challenges, and solutions of promoting academic achievement for African American students in K-12 urban settings. More specifically, the goal of this special issue was not to dwell on the problems but to identify solutions for improving the underachievement and lack of achievement of African American K-12 urban students from the perspectives of teachers, school counselors, school social workers, school psychologists, and administrators.  

In the first section of this special theme issue, “General Articles,” Green, Conley, and Benjamin present exploratory analysis of evaluation data from the implementation of an urban school counseling project. The overall intent of this project was to learn more about how the academic achievement gap resists change and to use the findings to develop viable recommendations for closing the academic achievement gap. Since very little research has been conducted on urban school counseling and its connection to academic achievement, this research is timely and closely aligned with the scope and focus of national school counseling standards.  

The next section of this special theme issue, “Research Articles and Reports,” has seven articles that add to the extant literature on promoting academic achievement for African American students in K-12 urban settings. Each article identifies solutions for improving the academic achievement of African American students in K-12 urban settings. In the first article, Beachum, Dentith, and McCray focus on school practices and relationships among educators that foster academic success for African American students. More specifically, the authors investigated teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives of teaching and learning success for African American middle-school students in an urban, Midwestern school system. Using a qualitative research design, four preliminary themes emerged: (a) tough love or discipline with dignity, (b) shared culture, (c) disparate perception (between Black and White educators), and (d) student achievement. This study is a “must read” because the authors present rich data on teachers’ and administrators’ perceptions of academic achievement, and they also provide specific implications for promoting academic success in the urban middle school setting.  

Flowers, Zhang, Moore, and Flowers, in the second article, examine the perceptions, attitudes, and experiences of African American high school students in a gifted education program. The authors found that numerous school factors hindered these students’ academic outcomes. This article is thought-provoking and significant because it renders specific recommendations to teachers and school counselors. It also contributes to the scant gifted education literature that focuses on African American high school students.  

In the third article, Burden, Hodge, and Harrison investigate African American and White students’ beliefs about their own (in-group) and each other (out-group) ethnic groups’ aspirations for athletic pursues. The authors found both similarities and differences between participants’ beliefs on in- and out-group aspirations. Also, the article presents specific implications for teachers, coaches, and other school professionals, such as school counselors. This article is an excellent contribution to the body of knowledge. We suspect that it will stir provocative conversations among students, educators, coaches, and educational policy makers.  

In the fourth article, Sanders and Lewis report the findings of a comprehensive case study conducted in an urban high school setting. This particular school has been using the Epstein (1995) framework of involvement for over five years to create school, family, and community partnerships, in turn, to improve student achievement and school engagement. The study provides in-depth details about the school’s partnership activities, action team, and the specific leadership roles espoused by team members. More importantly, the authors reveal how a team approach can help high schools in meeting the 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act requirements (i.e., No Child Left Behind) of parent and community involvement.  

In the fifth article, Lewis, Garrison-Wade, Scott, Douglas, and Middleton present a systematic review and synthesis of evidence-based research. This particular investigation focused on the status of African American teachers, 50 years after the renowned Brown versus Board of Education court decision of 1954. Although specific attention is focused on the recruitment of African American teachers into K-12 school settings, the authors limit their systematic review and synthesis on empirical studies written from 1993-2003. More importantly, the study renders findings that have specific implications for teachers and administrators. This study is exceptional because of its comprehensive review and the authors’ attempt to present an understanding of the body of research on the recruitment of African American teachers – a topic that has been rarely, if ever, examined.  

In the sixth article, Jenkins, Miranda, and Cook report the findings of the use of benchmark assessment data to track the progression of reading acquisition skills for kindergarten students in an urban elementary setting. Utilizing benchmark data from the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS), the authors found that early literacy development in kindergarten is critical for urban elementary students. Furthermore, the authors advocate for early identification of children at-risk for reading difficulty, and they present specific suggestions for overcoming barriers implementing prevention reading programs in urban school settings.  

Monroe, in the seventh article, argues that school social workers are trained to address both school and non-school issues for high school students. She also argues that school social workers need to play a more active role in promoting school success for African American students in urban school settings. To better understand the school and non-school issues of urban African Americans and the role of social workers, Monroe conducted a comprehensive case study on a school social worker in an urban high school setting. She investigated, using an ecological perspective, the social worker’s perceptions of the challenges and barriers of African American students in the urban high school. As a result, she found, based on the case study with the school social worker, that many of the challenges that African American students experience were related to poor person-in-environment fit, societal infrastructures, and larger cultural influences.  

In the third section of this special theme issue, “Best Practices,” Holcomb-McCoy illustrates, utilizing the theoretical and research literature, that a growing number of African American female adolescents are experiencing depression, teenage pregnancy, suicide, and delinquent behaviors. As an intervention, Holcomb-McCoy presents a two-dimensional group approach for working with this student population. The author also argues that her group approach is unique because it integrates an Afrocentric worldview in both the mentoring and group counseling dimensions. More importantly, Holcomb-McCoy suggests that it has strong implications for improving the educational and social plight of African American female adolescents.  

In addition to these articles, this special issue presents nine book reviews on topics that range from helping teachers in urban settings promote academic achievement for African American students to understanding African American youth and their school experiences. Each book review author provides a comprehensive analysis of the most recently published books. Many of these book reviews have an indirect, if not direct, impact on the focus of this special theme issue.

In the first book review, Allen reviews the work entitled, Black in School: Afrocentric Reform, Urban Reform, and the Promise of Hip-Hop Culture (Ginwright, 2004). This book provides a provocative challenge and sometimes a disturbing view of the plight of poor African American youth in America’s inner-city schools. Allen notes that Ginwright’s work mandates that those who are involved with urban youth and school reform recognize and acknowledge the myriad of forces that poor African American youth face before, during, and after school. This book review is a “must-read” because it provides a detailed summary of how poor African American youth experience school. 

In the second book review, Allen-Jones examines the book,  Black American Students in Affluent an Suburb:  A Study of Academic Disengagement (Ogbu, 2003). This book addresses the gap in achievement between Black and White students. Ogbu documents in this book that parents, teachers, and, most importantly, students themselves each have important roles in working to solve the problem of academic underachievement of African American students. This book review is both interesting and thought-provoking. Furthermore, Allen-Jones does an excellent job examining Ogbu’s work.

In the third book review, Douglas conducts a comprehensive review of the work entitled, Mathematics Success and Failure among African American Youth: The roles of sociohistorical context, community forces, school influence, and individual agency (Martin, 2000). Douglas notes that the purpose of this book is to address the psychological, academic, and mathematical development of African American adolescents, viewed in the context of the various forces that have significantly impacted their academic achievement. Douglas further notes that this book addresses several questions related to how socializations, identities, and successes are influenced by sociohistorical, community, school and interpersonal forces. We are confident that this book and its book review will help educational scholars, researchers, and practitioners to take a closer look at mathematical achievement among African American youth.

In the fourth book review, Henderson examines the book entitled, Educating Teachers for Diversity: Seeing with a Cultural Eye (Irvine, 2003). Henderson documents that the essays in this book are an updated collection of papers and lectures that the author has delivered over the past 10 years of her career. Complex issues of how culture and ethnicity influence the teaching and learning process are explored. Henderson also notes that this book was written to counter growing perceptions by pre- and in-service teachers that the race and ethnicity of students they teach have no influence on how they teach and how students learn. This book is a “must-read” for those interested in teacher education and the impact a teacher can have on African American students in urban settings.

In the fifth book review, Hendry reviews the book entitled, Race-ing Moral Formation: African American Perspectives on Care and Justice (Siddle-Walker & Snarey, 2004). Hendry documents in her extensive book review that this work increases one’s understanding of the role of race in moral formation and the contributions of African American voices to moral education. This book provides five African American justice and basic core values that serve as the foundation of this work: (a) race is not subordinate to gender, (b) resistance is not subordinate accommodation, (c) religion is not subordinate to ethics, (d) agency is not subordinate to legacy, and (e) community is not subordinate to the individual. Furthermore, Hendry highlights that this book substantiates the need for all educators to understand the necessity of incorporating these values into the existing White dominated educational practices.

In the sixth book review, Henfield provides a comprehensive review of the book entitled, Schooling Students Placed at Risk: Research, Policy and Practice in the Education of Poor and Minority adolescents (Sanders, 2000). Henfield details, in his book review, that the purpose of this book was to illustrate the need to focus on five areas in education that have garnered little attention in the literature: (a) school expenditures; (b) educational policies; (c) quality of school experience; (d) school, family, and community connections; and (e) teacher education and professional development. Henfield further documents that it is the author’s belief that more attention should be paid to the aforementioned areas of research to obtain greater progress in improving the academic success of historically underserved youth. Henfield also suggests that the book is an excellent resource for school administrators who are responsible for the education of at-risk youth.

In the seventh book review, Hines reviews the work entitled, Friendship, Cliques, and Gangs - Young Black Men Coming of Age in Urban America (Dimitriadis, 2003). Hines documents, in this book review, that this book explains the complexities of not only “at-risk” youth but also the on-going saga of urban, African American males. This book investigates implications for “at-risk” youth and why such youth are attracted or lured to risky lifestyles and behaviors. Hines recommends the book to anyone who is interested in gaining more insight and knowledge on the experiences of urban, African American youth in general and African American males in particular.

In the eighth book review, a world renowned teacher education scholar, Julie Landsman, reviews the book entitled, Through Ebony Eyes: What Teachers Need to Know but are Afraid to Ask about African American Students (Thompson, 2004). Landsman notes that Thompson divided this book into two major sections. The first section deals with the basics in education reform, such as tracking, theories to explain the achievement gap, common myths about African American students, effective instructional practices, and effective classroom management. The second section focuses on controversial questions and topics, such as: (a) Standard English versus Ebonics, (b) reaching students from challenging backgrounds, (c) the N word, (d) accusations of racism, and (e) culturally relevant education and other issues that come up for teachers who are hesitant to talk about them. Landsman strongly recommends this book because of its practicality.

In the ninth and final book review, Rulong reviews the book entitled, City Schools and the American Dream: Reclaiming the Promise of Public Education (Noguera, 2003). Rulong offers an introspective and compelling look at the plight of urban schools. This book, as part of the Multicultural Education Series (James A. Banks, Editor), is designed to address the complex economic, sociological, and political issues that currently hinder our nation’s debate to “leave no child behind.” Rulong documents that readers will have renewed faith in public schools, after reading this book. 

It is worth noting that the presented articles and book reviews all have implications for promoting academic achievement for African American students in K-12 urban settings. Additionally, they have implications for practice among teachers, school counselors, school social workers, school psychologists, and administrators. It is our intent that the scholarship and research from this special issue will both contribute to the body of knowledge and serve as an important resource for promoting academic achievement for African American students, particularly in K-12 urban settings. In addition, we hope that it will serve as a catalyst for discussion among various educational professionals and that it will provide deeper insight and understanding of the role that teachers, school counselors, school social workers, school psychologists, and administrators can serve, solely and collaboratively, in improving both school and non-school factors for urban African American students. 

About the Guest Editors:  Dr. Chance W. Lewis is an assistant professor in the School of Education and a research associate for the Research and Development Center for the Advancement of Student Learning at Colorado State University.  Dr. James L. Moore III is an assistant professor in counselor education in the College of Education, affiliated scholar at The John Glenn Institute, and affiliated scholar for the Ohio Collaborative at The Ohio State University. In addition, Professor Moore is also a LASER Research Associate at the Center for Action Research on Urban Schools and Effective Leadership at the University of South Florida. Correspondence regarding this special theme issue should be addressed to Dr. Lewis at Room 223, School of Education, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA; e-mail chance.lewis@colostate.edu.

References

Bell Kaplan, E. (1999). “It’s going good” Inner-city Black and Latino adolescents’perceptions about achieving an education. Urban Education, 34, 181-213. 

Dimitriadis, G. (2003). Friendship, cliques, and gangs - Young Black men coming of age in urban America. New York: Teachers College Press. 

Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the children we share. Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 701-712.

Flowers, L. A., Milner, H. R., & Moore, J. L., III. (2003). Effects of locus control on African American high school seniors’ educational aspirations: Implications for preservice and inservice high school teachers and Counselors. The High School Journal, 87, 39-50.

Ford, D. Y. (1996). Reversing underachievement among gifted Black students: Promising practices and programs. New York: Teachers College Press.

Ford, D. Y., & Harris, J. J., III. (1999). Multicultural gifted education. New York: Teachers College Press.

Ford, D. Y., & Moore, J. L., III. (2004). The achievement gap and gifted students of color: Cultural, social, and psychological factors. Understanding Our Gifted, 16, 3-7.

Ginwright, S.A. (2004). Black in school: Afrocentric reform, urban reform, and the promise of hip-hop culture. New York: Teachers College Press.

Grantham, T. C., & Ford, D. Y. (2003). Beyond self-concept and self-esteem for African American students: Improving racial identity improves achievement. The High School Journal, 87, 18-29.

Howard, T. C. (2003). “A tug war for our minds:” African American high school students’ perceptions of their academic identities and college aspirations. The High School Journal, 87, 4-17.

Irvine, J. J. (2003). Educating teachers for diversity: Seeing with a cultural eye. New York: Teachers College Press. 

Martin, D. B.  (2000).  Mathematics success and failure among African American youth:
The roles of sociohistorical context, community forces, school influence and
individual agency.  Mahwah, NJ:  Lawrence Erlbaum Associations.

Moore, J. L., III, Ford, D. Y., & Milner, H. R. (2005). Recruiting is not enough: Retaining African-American students in gifted education. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 49-65.

Moore, J. L., III, Madison-Colmore, O., & Smith, D. M. (2003). The prove-them-wrong syndrome: Voices from unheard African-American males in engineering disciplines. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 12, 61-73. 

Noguera, P. (2003). City schools and the American dream: Reclaiming the promise of public education. New York: Teachers College Press. 

Ogbu, J. U. (2004).  Collective identity and the burden of "acting White" in Black history, community, and education.  The Urban Review, 36, 1-35.

Ogbu, J. U. (2003). Black American students in an affluent suburb:  A study of academic disengagement.  Mahwah, NJ:  Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Sanders, M. G. (2000). Schooling students placed at risk: Research, policy, and practice
in the education of poor and minority adolescents. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.

Siddle-Walker, V., & Snarey, J. R. (2004).  Race-ing moral formatin:  African American perspectives on care and justice.  New York: Teachers College Press.

Talbert-Johnson, C. (2004). Structural inequities and the achievement gap in urban schools. Education and Urban Society, 37, 22-36.

Thompson. G. L. (2004).  Through ebony eyes:  What teachers need to know but are afraid
to ask about African American students.  San Francisco:  Jossey-Bass.