A Synthesis of Evidence-Based Research on the Status of African American Teachers 50 Years after Brown and its impact on African American Student Achievement: Implications for Teachers and Administrators  

Chance W. Lewis, Ph.D., Dorothy Garrison-Wade, Ph.D., Malcolm E. Scott, MSW,
Bruce B. Douglas, M.S., and Val Middleton, Ph.D.  

Abstract:  This study presented a systematic review and synthesis of evidence-based research on the status of the African American teacher 50 years after the famous Brown vs. Board of Education decision in 1954. Specific attention was placed on empirical studies, written from 1993-2003, that focused on the recruitment of African American teachers into the K-12 school setting. More specifically, this study provided a brief introduction on the status of African American teachers since Brown, chronicled the search strategies to locate the final literature database, and described the process involved in coding the identified studies. Based on the study’s findings, conclusions and implications are provided to teachers and administrators.  

Since the historic Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) U.S. Supreme court decision, one problem that has continued to plague the field of education is the lack of African American teachers in United States (U.S.) public schools. The educational community has come to a consensus in recommending that more African Americans are needed to deliver “culturally relevant pedagogy” (Ladson-Billings, 1994) to a more ethnically diverse student population.  According to Gordon (2000), reasons include the continued low academic performance of students of color (Dentzer & Wheelock, 1990; Ford & Moore, 2004; Moore & Pachon, 1985); the inability and/or the unwillingness of middle-class teachers to teach low-income children of color (Book, Byers, & Freeman, 1983); the need for all children to gain knowledge from a multiethnic teaching force (Banks & Banks, 1989); the high cost of prisons and welfare (Doston & Bolden, 1991); and “the desire for a more honest representation in the curriculum of the diversity of ideas and skills that have contributed to the development of America” (Dotson & Bolden, 1991, p. 11).  

Five decades after Brown, the majority of U.S. public school students go through their entire kindergarten to twelfth grade (K-12) education without having an African American teacher, and approximately 70% of all ethnic minority students still attend segregated predominately minority schools (Hawkins, 1994; Orfield & Lee, 2004). Without fault of the positive aspects of the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision, it has become crystal clear that 50 years later, African Americans have failed to get the results they envisioned from this landmark case. Consequently, this has become even more evident in the African American teaching force. Over the years, since this historic decision, scholars (Mercer & Mercer, 1986) have noted that “[operating] a public school system without African American teachers is [like teaching] White supremacy without saying a word” (p.105). As a result, this article argues that the significant loss of African American teachers can be traced back to the Brown decision. Since the decision of this landmark case, the loss of African American teachers has had a lasting negative effect on all students, particularly African American students and the communities in which they reside.  

African American Participation in Teaching  

Teaching in the African American community has been viewed as a noble profession by many African American teachers. In the 1950s and 1960s, African American pre-service teachers enrolled in teacher preparation programs at historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in record numbers because of the lack of opportunity in other fields of study (Clem, 1986). In 1954, the year of the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, approximately 82,000 African American teachers were responsible for the education of the nation’s two million African American public school students (Hawkins, 1994). After graduation, many African American teaching graduates went back into their communities to serve the educational and social needs for the next generation of African American students.  

Historically, African Americans served not only as teachers but also as counselors, role models, and spiritual leaders (Clem, 1986). According to Clem, African Americans were entering teacher preparation programs at HBCUs more than any other time in U.S. history. Kunjufu (2002) noted that many of the best African American minds were denied opportunities outside of teaching. This exclusion of other career opportunities allowed African American students the opportunity to be educated by the best minds in the African American community. Regretfully, a decade after Brown, over 38,000 African American teachers, school counselors, and administrators lost their positions in 17 southern and border states because of integration and other ramifications of the Brown decision (Ethridge, 1979; Holmes, 1990; Tillman, 2004).  

Most recently, both the popular and scientific literature has indicated that the percentages of African American teachers are not keeping pace proportionally with the percentage of African American students in public schools across the United States (Foster & Peele, 1999; Irvine, 2002; Kunjufu, 2002). According to the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) (1999), historically, White teachers have comprised 70% of the public school population. In the new millennium, African American students comprise 20% of the total student enrollment, while African American teachers make up only 8% of the teaching force nationwide, with African American males teachers making up only 1% (Kunjufu, 2002; National Education Association, 2001).  

A disturbing theme that has emerged is that African Americans are not pursuing the field of education, since other career opportunities are now more readily available to them (Clem, 1986; Irvine, 1988; Wilder, 2000). Gordon (2000) interviewed current African American teachers to ascertain their thoughts on why more African American teachers are not pursuing the field of education. African American teachers in Gordon’s study reported that many of the African American students who are in college do not view teaching as an attractive or lucrative career choice. More specifically, she placed the reasons into three general categories: (a) economic, (b) educational, and (c) social/cultural. Furthermore, African American teachers do not pursue the field of teaching in part because of the low compensation offered by many school districts (Gordon, 2000). Jacullo-Noto (1991) indicated that low compensation may be one of the initial factors that push academically able African Americans from the field of education. Of the most academically able African American students (as indicated by standardized test scores) going to college, less than 1% have indicated an interest in education (Garrett, 1998). According to the American Federation of Teachers (2000), African Americans comprise only 5% of education students in teacher preparation programs across the United States.  

In journals, books, and monographs, the education literature has documented that African Americans face many educational and non-educational obstacles that keep them from pursuing a career in teaching (Lewis, in-press). The push for greater standards has led to the adoption of standardized tests for teachers, such as the National Teachers Exam (NTE), commonly known as the PRAXIS I & II. The majority of states now require passage of these tests for teacher certification, and reviews of individuals who fail these tests show that a disproportionate number of such individuals are African Americans. As a result, some states have required that universities and colleges with teacher preparation programs produce a certain percentage of students who pass the standardized tests in order to maintain their teacher education programs. Unfortunately, many HBCUs experience many challenges with their students passing the NTE and are often in danger of losing their teacher preparation programs because many of their students are not passing the required standardized tests for entrance into the teaching profession. For example, Southern University - Baton Rouge, an HBCU, was threatened with closure of its teacher preparation program because many students were not passing the standardized teacher test at the required 80 percent passage rate (Dyer, 2003). The Southern University - Baton Rouge program responded with a 97 percent passage rate; however, many teacher programs that prepare African American teachers are being watched closely by various stakeholders and policy makers.  

In 2000, Gordon documented that a number of prospective African American teachers face social/cultural impediments in route to the teaching profession. These challenges comprise various forms, such as poor academic preparation in secondary schools and difficulty in the social/cultural adjustments to college life. Aligned with this notion, Loo and Rolinson (1986) documented that “academic alienation of African American students was due to “poor academic preparation’ in high school and the ‘culture shock’ of encountering a culture distinctively different than their own” (p. 72). Jacullo-Noto (1991) also noted that cross-cultural research suggests that the culture and cognitive styles of African American students differ from mainstream non-minorities. Anderson (1988) reported that many universities and colleges do not have the necessary structured programs in place to affirm the value of cultural diversity school-wide, especially within teacher education programs. These socio-cultural disconnections are other obstacles that often hinder many African Americans from matriculating in teacher education programs.  

In reviewing the research literature on the trends of African American participation in teaching, three general themes emerged related to African American students’ low representation in the teaching profession. Such themes were: (a) low compensation offered to teachers, (b) educational obstacles such as the NTE or Praxis, and (c) social/cultural impediments (e.g., culture shock at the university level). To increase the presence of African Americans among the teaching ranks, the compensation being offered must become more attractive to influence African Americans to take a serious look at the field of education. Second, to overcome the educational obstacles (e.g., Praxis), teacher education programs need to set as a priority test-taking skills seminars and classes to help African Americans improve their chances of passing the Praxis. Finally, teacher education programs need to make their cultures on campus and within classes more “welcoming” for African American teacher candidates to increase their chances of becoming certified or licensed teachers. This is especially important, since African American teacher education students tend to feel like outsiders and often struggle to maintain their own racial identity within their university classrooms (Garret, 1998).  

Method  

This systematic review followed a rigorous methodological approach informed by previous systematic reviews completed in educational settings (Lewis, Winokur, & Cobb, in-press). The following section provides a step-by-step description of the search, retrieval, and coding processes. In addition, a description of the extraction process on the extant literature on the recruitment of African American teachers is detailed.  

Search Strategy  

In the first stage of the systematic review of the recruitment of African American teachers, a comprehensive search strategy was formulated. As the topic is primarily educational in nature, it was decided that the databases for Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, First Search Database, and Dissertation Abstractions International (DAI) would be accessed to identify appropriate research literature on this topic. To search these academic databases, the following Boolean logic statements were used: (a) recruitment of African American teachers, (b) African American teacher shortages, (c) Black teachers, (d) African American teachers and standardized testing, (e) African American teacher role models, (f) teacher diversity, and (g) recruitment of African American teacher candidates. Furthermore, the search was bound to studies (e.g., quantitative and qualitative) completed from 1993-2003, so that all data in the evidence report were collected and analyzed during the past 10 years.  

Search Results  

The intensive electronic search yielded 42 documents consisting of journal articles, conference papers, evaluation reports, dissertations, and policy papers on the recruitment of African American teachers. The citations for the 42 documents were downloaded into Reference Manager 9, which is an interactive literature management software package.  

During the second stage of the search process, abstracts for each of the 42 references were read and analyzed according to the initial criteria established for the systematic review. In reading the abstracts, five (12%) were reviewed by two members of the research team to ensure consistency in the acquisition decision. As a result, full-text copies were obtained for the 25 documents related to the recruitment of African American teachers. To ensure that no studies had been missed during the electronic search, a visual examination of the reference lists for each of the 25 articles/reports were conducted. After this manual search, two additional studies that met the inclusion criteria were obtained.  

In addition, the Google and Yahoo search engines were accessed to locate additional on-line and published references that were not identified in the initial electronic or manual searches. To search these Internet portals, the same Boolean logic statements were used. Furthermore, the search was bound to studies completed from 1993-2003. After this search, two additional studies that met the inclusion criteria were obtained, which qualified for a total of 29 articles/reports for the third stage of review.  

Keywording Criteria           

During the third stage, a “keywording” rubric (Table 1) was used to categorize each study by the type of design, type of sample, and type of outcome. To make it to the next phase, a study had to investigate the recruitment of African American teachers in either a quantitative or qualitative research design. Since the recruitment of ethnic minority teachers (e.g., African American teachers) is such a “hot” topic in the field of education, it was timely to explore extant literature from the past 10 years to inform the field on the status of the African American teachers 50 years after Brown. Hence, the evidence-base to make the most informed decisions would include only research studies with a research design and associated outcomes (e.g., quantitative and qualitative studies).           

In addition, the sample for an eligible study had to be drawn from current research literature on African American teachers, African American pre-service teachers, and African American college students that were currently in the pipeline to become teachers. Further, if there were multiple articles/reports from a single study, the most recent and/or complete document was eligible for inclusion. After being pilot tested for clarity and inter-rater reliability, the instrument was revised before the 29 articles were coded. After coding the articles based on the keywording criteria (Table 1), only 11 studies were eligible for the final stage of review.           

During the final stage, the 11 documents were then separated by type of research design (quantitative or qualitative). From this point, findings within and across all documents were analyzed by research design for reporting purposes. Then, the researchers pulled the major themes from each paradigm that could inform the discussion on increasing the recruitment of African American teachers in the K-12 teaching force on a national level.  

Table 1  

African American Teacher Systematic Review Keywording Rubric  

Findings  

To better understand the status of African American teachers, for reporting purposes, the findings for this systematic review were divided into three areas: (a) quantitative findings, (b) qualitative findings, and (c) best evidence. The evidence-base of research, focusing on the recruitment of African American teachers, included only 11 studies to inform the discussion on this topic. The findings for the three areas are found below.  

Quantitative Findings  

As displayed in Table 2, 6 of the 11 studies in the evidence-base (Myers, 2001; Wood, 2001; Brown-Cox, 1999; Budd-Jackson, 1995; Brown & Butty, 1999) reported the most common reasons why African American teachers decided to pursue a career in teaching. After examining findings across all quantitative articles, findings revealed that the top eight reasons for African Americans to choose teaching as a career were: (a) opportunity to use abilities, (b) challenging and interesting work, (c) job stability, (d) health benefits, (e) opportunity to learn, (f) general and sick leave benefits, (g) contributions to humanity, and (h) job location. Also, another important theme that emerged from the quantitative studies was factors that school districts should know if they are serious about recruiting African American teachers. The factors that were most important for African American teachers were: (a) school districts need to rethink recruitment strategies to better address both district and community issues with potential African American teacher candidates, (b) African American teaching candidates indicated a desire and a vision to work with school districts that exemplify a vision to educate and encourage high expectations for all students, and (c) African American teaching candidates are concerned about support issues and indicate a need to work for districts with strong support programs.  

Table 2  

Summary of Quantitative Studies Included in the Evidence-base  

Qualitative Findings  

As displayed in Table 3, 5 of the 11 studies (Albers, 2002; Gordon, 2000; Lynn, 2002; Wilder, 1999; Wilder, 2000; Wright, 2003) had qualitative research designs. Overall, the qualitative studies that made it into the evidence-base focus on themes that discourage the recruitment of African Americans into the teaching profession, such as (a) standardized testing and (b) negative views of the teaching profession by African American teaching candidates. Under the area of standardized testing, the Albers (2002) study provided the richest data on standardized testing (e.g., Praxis I & II) that has been historically a major obstacle for African American teacher candidates. In this study, Albers found that African American teacher candidates bring a culture that is different than their White counterparts. The author asserts that assessment mechanisms must account for cultural realities that teacher candidates bring to testing. Through this study, findings show that the Praxis I and II and other teacher tests continue in the oppression of non-White teacher candidates whose knowledge and experiences are not the same as their White counterparts. With this given, teacher testing has a major impact on the status of African American teachers in K-12 settings throughout the United States.  

The second overall theme that emerged from the qualitative studies was that African American teaching candidates held a negative view about the teaching profession. The qualitative studies overall reported that the major areas that brought about negative views of teaching were: (a) economic, (b) education, and (c) social/cultural reasons. The economic reasons were low pay, too much education for the return, and a wider range of career choices than previous generations of African Americans. The educational reasons were associated with inadequate K-12 schooling, negative experiences in the school setting, and a lack of emotional and intellectual mentoring. The social/cultural reasons were related to experiences of racism, lack of encouragement, and racelessness. These three broad areas were common reasons why African American teaching candidates held a negative view of the teaching profession which could have a negative impact on recruitment.  

Table 3  

Summary of Qualitative Studies Included in the Evidence-Base  

Best Evidence  

During this systematic review, one study conducted by the Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) was clearly the best evidence in providing a national perspective on the status of African American teachers in the K-12 settings. This study provided data on the under-representation of African Americans in the teaching ranks and provided data on the trends of degree attainment to understand the current status and future outlook for African American teachers.  

African American Under-representation in Teaching  

The Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) reported that African American pre-service and in-service teachers continue to lag behind the representation of African American schoolchildren. This study reported that in 2000, 17% of all elementary and secondary students were African American and that African American teachers make up only 7% of the teaching population (10% lower than the representation of African American students). Therefore, African American teachers continue to be under-represented in the teaching ranks.

¹Source: Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) analyses of Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

Degree Attainment

The research by the Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) also revealed the degree attainment of African Americans compared with members of other racial backgrounds. Findings indicated that African Americans had an 81% increase in the number of education bachelor degrees earned between 1987 and 1998. This study also showed that African Americans constitute about 7-8% of all teaching degree recipients at both the bachelor and master degree levels.  

²Source: Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) analyses of Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System  

Teacher education is the third most common major among African Americans pursuing master degrees and fifth most popular major among undergraduates. Seven percent of all bachelor degrees awarded to African Americans were in teaching – representing the fifth most common major (4th if included with education) among African American undergraduates (see Figure 3). Also, education was the most common field of study for African American and White master degree recipients. In 2001, 34% of all master degrees were awarded in education (Patterson Research Institute, 2001).

³Source: Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) analyses of Integrated Postsecondary  Education Data System  

In 2001, African Americans earned 3,123 bachelor degrees in elementary education, 601 degrees in early childhood education, 581 degrees in special education, 291 degrees in secondary education, and 193 degrees in junior high/middle school education. Nearly two-thirds (61%) of all African American education bachelor degrees were earned in elementary education. Also, early childhood education (12%) is the second most common major among African American education graduates.  

⁵Source: Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) analyses of the Integrated Postsecondary Data System

In comparison to all universities, HBCUs produce a disproportionate share of African American bachelor degree recipients, especially in education. First, for all education bachelor degrees earned in 2000, 32% were awarded at HBCUs (see Figure 6). Second, for all education master degrees earned by African Americans in 2000, 20% were earned at HBCUs. Third, for all master degrees awarded by HBCUs in 2000, 46% were in education.

⁶Source: Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) analyses of the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System  

Discussion  

So what can be extrapolated from the findings of this systematic review related to the status of the African American 50 years after Brown? After reviewing the evidence-base of quantitative and qualitative research studies focusing on the recruitment of African American teachers, interesting themes emerged that schools/colleges of education, school district personnel, and other stakeholders should consider when focusing on the recruitment of these pre-service teachers. First, the quantitative studies summarized the top eight reasons why African Americans decide to choose teaching as a career. These reasons were (a) opportunity to use abilities, (b) challenging and interesting work, (c) job stability, (d) health benefits, (e) opportunity to learn, (f) general and sick leave benefits, (g) contributions to humanity, and (h) job location. Given the overall themes from the quantitative studies why African Americans choose the teaching profession, school district officials should focus their recruitment strategies on the reasons that African Americans have indicated in the research findings. This may take the form of school district personnel revising current recruitment initiatives targeted on prospective African American teachers.           

Second, the qualitative studies in the evidence-base emerged with themes related to obstacles that have discouraged African Americans from pursuing the teaching profession. These two themes were (a) standardized testing and (b) negative views of the teaching profession by African American candidates. The first theme highlights that standardized tests represent major obstacles for prospective African American teaching candidates. As indicated earlier in this study, Latham et al. (1999) noted that during the 1995-1997 time period, 82% of White candidates successfully passed the Praxis I test on the National Teachers Exam in comparison to 46% of the African American candidates. If any improvement is to be made in the representation of African American teachers on a national level, more must be done by teacher preparation programs to assist in the success of this population on standardized tests. This may take the form of requiring test-taking seminars as a part of the teacher preparation curriculum.           

Third, the best evidence in this systematic review clearly revealed the current status of the African American teacher 50 years after Brown. The Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute (2001) reported that currently, the African American participation in the teaching ranks is 10% lower than the representation of African American students in the public school setting. However, recent trends show that African Americans had an 81% increase in the number of education bachelor degrees earned between 1987 and 1998. Also, research by the Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute indicates that teacher education is the third most common major among African Americans pursuing master degrees, and fifth most popular among undergraduates. With this given, there is a ray of hope that more African American participation will take place in the teaching ranks. With an 81% increase in the education degrees conferred over a 10-year time period, this illustrates that more African Americans have entered the pipeline to be teachers.  

Recommendations for Teachers  

To improve the academic achievement of African American students in K-12 urban settings, teachers must take a more active role than ever before. A review of the literature and the findings of this study indicate that all teachers, African American teachers in particular, play a vital role in promoting academic achievement in this setting. The following recommendations are made to teachers as professionals on the front-lines with African American students:  

1.                  Every attempt should be made to present culturally relevant content to African American students (Ladson-Billings, 1994). This will allow African American students to make a connection with their environment and the world around them.  

2.                  Efforts should be made to connect African American students and their classroom experiences with successful African Americans in the community. By doing so, teachers can take African American students on field trips to bring classroom learning to life. Also, African American students can also see potential role models in the community by participating in these activities.  

3.                  Collaborative relationships with parents and family members should be forged with a renewed energy. Oftentimes, many teachers do not think that parents want to be involved; however, many times parents are not involved because they are never invited to participate.  

4.                  Teachers should set high expectations for African American students in urban settings. In other words, expect these students to perform and really believe they can achieve high levels of academic achievement.  

Recommendations for Administrators  

To increase the numbers of African American teachers pursuing teaching careers in K-12 urban settings, the role of the school administrator will be of critical importance. After examining the research literature and the findings of this study, there are several strategies school administrators can take to make sure more African American teachers are in classrooms to deliver culturally relevant content (Ladson-Billings, 1994) to African American students in K-12 urban settings. The following recommendations are made to assist administrators to recruit more African American teachers in K-12 urban settings and to increase the academic achievement of African American students.  

1.                  Every attempt should be made to visit job fairs at HBCUs, since they produce the largest number of African American teaching graduates. By doing so, school administrators can find African American teachers that can be effective in the urban setting and also serve as role models for students.  

2.                  Collaborative relationships should be forged with community organizations (e.g., fraternities and sororities) for prospective African American professionals that may have an interest in the teaching profession.  

3.                  Efforts should be made to provide current teachers in the K-12 urban settings with state of the art professional development opportunities. This will equip current teachers in this setting with the most effective teaching strategies to raise the academic achievement levels of their students.  

4.                  Efforts should be made by school administrators to increase their instructional leadership of the urban school site. Oftentimes, school administrators devote a majority of their time to discipline and other non-instructional duties which usually means instructional leadership is short-changed.  

Conclusion  

Fifty years after the historic Brown decision, the data from the research (Clem, 1986; Irvine, 1988; Garrett, 1998; Gordon, 2000; Wilder, 2000) continue to show us that African Americans are abandoning the teaching profession at alarming rates and leaving predominantly White female teachers to educate African American children. The discussion about the lack of academic achievement of African American students tends to lead to discussions about factors external to schools, such as African American students’ performance and inadequate preparation as well as lack of family support for African American students. According to Avery and Walker (1993), when examining the question of what is happening to African American students in the school and classroom, the recognition of the shortage of African American teachers is noted. In 1994 and 1995, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the U.S. Department of Education reported that African American students continue to trail White students with respect to educational access, achievement, and attainment (NCES, 1994; NCES, 1995). The reports of the U.S. Department of Education do not discuss who is teaching African American students or whether these teachers are prepared to teach African American students effectively.  

“Forty-four percent of the nation’s schools have no teacher of color on staff, and many students will complete their K-12 schooling without being taught by a single teacher of color” (Irvine, 2003, p. 52). According to Olsen (2000), there are only 1,300 teacher education programs in the United States and one half of all graduates will not be teaching four years after they graduate. This will result in large scale turnover within the teaching profession. Policymakers and educators tend to use these data when they focus on recruitment and retention programs that are directed toward African American teachers. The fact remains that African American teachers are needed in the K-12 school setting.  

When the student, the person in the dependent role is of a race or background that is subordinated within society, and the teacher, the person in the independent role, is of a race or background that enjoys majority status, the student must then cope with the possibility, or at least the concern, that their efforts may not be valued for a number of reasons other than the quality of their educational performance. African American students, basing their self-evaluations on the values and expectations of a person not of their race or cultural background, may face pressures that students who share the race and cultural background of the teacher do not. African American teachers contribute to the academic success of African American students, facilitate the academic achievement of African American students because of their high expectations for African American students, and African American teachers demonstrate unique, culturally based teaching styles that African American students can relate to (Irvine, 2003).  

So, where do we start to recruit African American teachers? School districts need to recruit African American teachers from community colleges, predominantly African American high schools, African American fraternities and sororities, and African American churches. School districts should also establish support systems that encourage and assist African American teachers to continue their education and professional growth. The recruitment and retention of African American teachers by school districts should be continuous and should include an emphasis on adequate compensation and other incentives (i.e., loan forgiveness on student loans, signing bonuses, etc.). According to Freeman (2001), approximately one third of African American teachers graduate from HBCUs. Because of this fact, Freeman suggests that HBCUs are uniquely poised to lead the nation in designing and implementing programs that produce African American teachers. Therefore, more must be done by HBCU teacher education programs to aid in the success of African American teacher candidates on standardized tests, such as requiring test-taking seminars on a regular basis.  

At predominantly White schools, colleges of education should also assume a leadership role in the recruitment and retention of African American teachers by hiring African American faculty on their own campuses. “In addition to hiring faculty of color, colleges of education should institute new paradigms for teacher education curriculum, faculty development, and faculty research” (Irvine, 2003, p. 60). Increasing the numbers of African American faculty can help to disrupt some of the preconceived notions that the rest of the world may have about the competencies and abilities of African Americans. Certainly, African American faculty can serve as a resource and counterbalance to prevailing notions of African American communities, for both adults and children.  

Implications for Future Research  

More and more, African American students are being educated by people that are not of their race or cultural background. Given that a significant number of African American students in K-12 educational settings will be largely educated by White teachers, there is a pressing need to know more about the effect White teachers have on African American students. What role do White teachers play in facilitating African American student success or contributing to their academic failure?  Do their views of African American students allow them to address the educational needs of these African American students? Do African American students have perceptions of White teachers’ ideas, beliefs, and values that get in the way of their academic achievement? Can the lack of success of African American students be fully attributable to factors outside of schools, such as their family lives, influence of their peers, or their lack of ability?  

The impact of White teachers on the academic achievement of African American students has not had sufficient study and it is becoming increasingly critical that the dynamics of this relationship be understood. Society needs educators who can help all African American students to prepare for intensifying national and international competition, and to handle the change that will determine how competitive the United States will be in a global system. The findings of this study should help external constituents understand the status of the African American teacher and to inform the field of the impact that teachers have on the success of African American students.  

About the Authors: Dr. Chance W. Lewis is an assistant professor in the School of Education at Colorado State University. His research interests include recruitment/retention of African American teachers in urban settings, the achievement gap, and promoting academic achievement for minority students. Dr. Dorothy Garrison-Wade is an assistant professor in the School of Education at the University of Colorado-Denver. Her research interests include the experiences of African American administrators in the K-12 setting, affirmative action in college admissions, and the experiences of African American doctoral students at predominately white institutions. Mr. Malcolm Scott is a doctoral candidate in the School of Education at Colorado State University. His research interests include understanding the factors that impact African American students seeking advanced social work degrees. Mr. Bruce Douglas is a doctoral student in the School of Education at Colorado State University. His research interests focus on understanding the impact White teachers have on the academic achievement of African American students. Dr. Valerie Middleton is an assistant professor at Northern Arizona University. Her research interests include multiculturalism and academic achievement of African American students. Address correspondence to the first author at Room 223, School of Education, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA; e-mail chance.lewis@colostate.edu.

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