Noguera, P. (2003). City schools and the American dream: Reclaiming the promise of public education. New York: Teachers College Press. (ISBN 0-8077-4381-X, 189 pages)  

Melissa S. Rulong, M.A.  

Pedro Noguera’s book, City schools and the American dream: Reclaiming the Promise of Public Education, offers an introspective and compelling look at the plight of urban schools. This book, as part of the Multicultural Education Series (James A. Banks, Editor), is designed to address the complex economic, sociological, and political issues that currently hinder our nation’s mandate to “leave no child left behind.” Drawing on his extensive background as a teacher, elected board member, political activist, parent, and researcher-professor (previously at the University of California-Berkeley and currently at Harvard), Noguera posits that we “cannot address education issues in a social vacuum” (xiii).  

Noguera organizes his book into seven chapters, centered on external environmental factors and challenges faced by failing school systems. This book is influenced and guided by his extensive research in the San Francisco Bay Area, which highlights the problems faced by urban schools and the surrounding communities. In chapter one, “Finding Hope Among the Hopeless,” Noguera characterizes his approach to addressing the challenges of urban schools as one of “critical support” and “pragmatic optimism” (p. 8). Drawing on 20 years of experience in public education, Noguera is familiar with the difficult and often daunting realities of urban schools, yet remains hopeful and steadfast in his belief that “all children, regardless of their race or class background, can learn and grow in positive and productive ways when provided the opportunity, and that even in the poorest communities it is possible to create schools that serve children well” (p. 10). Utilizing Paulo Friere’s (1972) framework of “limited situations,” Noguera asserts those that know the least about education often have the most influence over its policies. Thus, he argues, it is necessary for those in power to give historically poor and marginalized populations shared ownership and involvement in the formation and implementation of solutions to transform urban schools.  

Intermittently throughout his book, Noguera unabashedly makes strong political statements. In chapter one, he discusses the faults inherent in academic testing. Specifically, he asserts that high-stakes tests are “fundamentally flawed and morally irresponsible… [because] the exams are used to hold students accountable for their achievement even though the authorities who have imposed the exams know that they cannot guarantee the quality of education students receive” (p. 15). Norguera argues that the inequitable educational opportunities present in today’s schools pose a formidable obstacle to achieving academic success for all students.  

In chapter two, “The Social Context and its Impact on Inner-City Schooling,” Noguera utilizes case examples from his research in four San Francisco Bay cities (e.g., San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, and Richmond) to illustrate the relationship between changes in the demographic and economic profile of each city and the current state of their public school system. Noguera contends that, “the cultural and economic boundaries separating neighborhoods are as important as those created by space and distance” (p. 31). He argues that social capital (e.g., the ability to network within the system and exert control over one’s environment) plays a crucial role in the ability of parents to assume leadership roles within their schools. Noguera also posits that poor and minority parents often lack social capital and thus schools serving this population have little reason to respond to their constituents’ concerns because they, unlike their affluent counterparts, lack the resources to apply the necessary pressures to make school officials listen. Noguera believes these inequities continue to fuel tensions between underserved populations and school districts and thus widens the achievement gap.  

In chapter three, “The Role of Schools in Reducing Racial Inequity: Closing the Achievement Gap,” Noguera calls attention to the wide body of educational research that clearly demonstrates that minority and impoverished students succeed at much lower rates in schools than their affluent White counterparts. Noguera is critical of Black scholars including John McWhorter and Shelby Steele, who assert that culture is the fundamental reason for poor academic performance of African American students. He argues that creating cultural explanations for the achievement gap, “absolve[s] schools and U.S. society generally from any responsibility for reversing academic trends” (p. 48). Noguera contends that such a position leads to apathy, inactivity and unresponsiveness.  

Also in chapter three, Noguera discusses racial identity models as developed by Ogbu (1987, 1990) and Fordham (1986, 1996). He insists that not all minority students (including him) believe academic success is synonymous with “acting White.” He, therefore, asserts that it is important for educators to understand racial identity models from a variety of perspectives in order to create strategies to “counter the insidious ways in which race and achievement become linked” (p. 58).  

In chapter four, “Unequal Outcomes, Unequal Opportunities: Closing the Achievement Gap in Berkeley,” Noguera uses a case example from Berkeley High School to illustrate how a four-year collaborative effort, entitled the Diversity Project, comprised of students, teachers, parents, school board members and university-researchers, addressed the existing achievement gap. Research strategies were based on the following objectives: (a) make the familiar seem strange and problematic (e.g., question assumptions related to race and academic achievement), (b) critically examine the organization and structure of privilege, and (c) empower the disadvantaged and marginalized (e.g., seek assistance and leadership from those who have been historically underserved by the school) (p. 67). Also, in chapter four, Noguera traces the development and implementation of the Diversity Project and addresses both its strengths and limitations. At the conclusion of this effort, organizers of the project transferred leadership responsibilities to those who had long-term vested interest in the school (e.g., parents, teachers, administrators, etc.) - a key ingredient, according to Noguera, for its continued success.  

Chapter five, “Segregation, Poverty, and Limits of Local Control: Oakland as a Case Study,” addresses how disparities in local communities affect institutional and governmental control of city schools. Although research findings consistently demonstrate that poverty is a major contributor to academic failure, the author asserts that state and federal governments have still done little to assist poor communities and their schools. Using Oakland as a case example, a public school system with 90% of its student population qualifying for free or reduced lunch, Noguera discusses what he refers to as the “captured market problem” (p. 87).  Unlike affluent parents who are able to mobilize their social capital and make threats of leaving the district, many poor parents lack such capabilities, due to economic constraints. Thus, “affairs of the district can be managed with little concern for whether or not those served are satisfied with the quality of education provided” (p. 90).  

Yet, keeping with his pragmatic optimism, Noguera believes that schools are capable of changing “from the outside-in” (p. 96), by developing social capital and civic capacity. Noguera also asserts that developing civic capacity (e.g., garnering assistance from outside organizations and institutions) can help provide growth-facilitating services to students in urban schools. He outlines four activities in which members of local organizations and institutions can participate to assist with this endeavor: (a) serving as mentors and tutors; (b) providing career-related internship sites and career awareness activities; (c) implementing professional development for school personnel, particularly through partnerships with local universities; and (d) providing health and welfare services to students and their families. Noguera concludes the chapter by stating “education continues to be the only legitimate source of opportunity for the poor” (p. 102).  He also argues that approaches such as building social capital and civic capacity must be priorities so that urban schools can become the “great equalizer” they were intended to be.  

Chapter six, “The Culture of Violence and the Need for Safety in School,” exemplifies Noguera’s extensive knowledge and comprehensive understanding of urban schools. Through comparative research studies at Lowell Middle School in Oakland (an inner-city school) and Willard Middle School (a middle class school) in Berkeley, Noguera demonstrates the necessity of talking with students in order to understand their perspectives, attitudes, fears, and experiences with violence. Noguera maintains that by taking time to ascertain student perceptions of school safety, administrators are better able to address the issues of violence in their schools. Noguera concludes chapter six by outlining six approaches that he believes will assist administrators in creating more effective policies related to school violence: (a) develop strategies that address the underlying causes of violence, (b) involve youth directly in the development of short-term and long-term solutions, (c) provide students with a genuine role in school reform processes, (d) promote a climate of respect by responding quickly and consistently to minor infractions, (e) adopt a preventative approach to discipline utilizing strategies that encourage students to take responsibility for their behavior and learn from their mistakes, and (f) provide numerous opportunities for students to become more deeply engaged in school and in activities that further their development. Noguera claims that research can play a critical role in increasing school safety and that such research should be shared not only in academic settings but more importantly, to the stakeholders (e.g., parents, students, teachers, administrators, school board members) who are desperately seeking innovative ways to address this most important and pressing issue.           

In his seventh and concluding chapter, “What Will it Take to Improve America’s Urban Public Schools,” Noguera restates his position that, “It will not be possible to improve urban public schools until our society is willing to address the issues and problems confronting the children and families in the communities where they are located” (p. 142). He returns to Freire’s (1972) seminal work and emphasizes the need for those in power to work in tandem with those who are oppressed in order to overcome the barriers and challenges  (e.g., racial inequity, violence, poverty, academic failure, drug trafficking) currently facing urban schools. Noguera also stresses that our society must be willing to try new and innovative initiatives and cites case examples of schools and individuals who have succeeded in responding to the difficult educational and environmental issues they have faced. His contributions in this chapter elucidate ways in which schools and community members can collaborate to implement the macro level changes that Noguera highlights.  

In chapter seven, Noguera refers to Brecht (1965) who stated, “Education is a double-edged sword: it can be used to oppress or to liberate” (Noguera, 2003, p. 152). He believes that the American public has the awesome responsibility of ensuring that our urban schools are not mechanisms that further promote inequitable treatment and oppression of children, but rather provide America’s true ideals of liberation and equality for all students, regardless of their race, ethnicity, or class.  

Noguera’s well-supported research and lifetime of experiences makes this work credible and additive to the field of education. His ability to speak candidly about real-life issues surrounding urban schools rather than what is politically popular, assists readers in delving deeper and thinking more clearly about what needs to be done to help urban schools succeed. While Noguera devotes much of his book to analyzing the complex relationships between societal and environmental constraints and schools, readers may wish for at least equal attention to the formulation of solutions. While Noguera is able to identify case examples of successful urban schools, a more robust discussion surrounding these novel initiatives may have helped satiate many urban educators’ hunger for authentic programs that work. Noguera’s pragmatic optimism is contagious and serves to spark hope in those who read his well-crafted work. Readers will have renewed faith that indeed, with proper strategies and strong financial and social support, city schools can achieve the American dream.  

About the Author:  Ms. Melissa S. Rulong is currently a second year doctoral student in the counselor education department at The Ohio State University. Her research interests include resiliency in adolescent students, career development of urban youth, and school counselor leadership and training. Address correspondence to the author at The Ohio State University, School of Physical Activity and Educational Services, College of Education, 1945 North High Street, 356 Arps Hall, Columbus, OH 43210 USA; e-mail rulong.2@osu.edu.  

References  

Brecht, B. (1965). The Messingkauf dialogues. Berlin, Germany: Methuen.  

Fordham, S. (1996). Blacked out: Dilemmas of race, identity, and success at Capital High. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.  

Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. (1986). Black students and school success: Coping with the burden of acting white. Urban Review, 18(3), 176-206.  

Freire, P. (1972). The pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.  

Ogbu, J. (1987). Opportunity structure, cultural boundaries, and literacy. In J. Langer (Ed.), Language, literacy, and culture: Issues of society and schooling. (pp.149-177). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Press.  

Ogbu, J. (1987). Variability in minority student performance: A problem in search of an explanation. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18(4), 312-334.  

Ogbu, J, (1990). Literacy and schooling in subordinate cultures: The case of black Americans. In K.Lomotey (Ed.), Going to school (pp.113-130). Albany, NY: State of University of New York Press.