| Home | Purpose | Editors | Board of Reviewers | Author Guidelines | Review Process | Issues |
Using Ethnic Music to
Improve Academic Achievement within Multicultural Settings Johan
W. van der Jagt, Ph.D. Abstract: Two major concerns in educational settings around the world are the growing student populations from culturally diverse backgrounds and the academic competencies students must achieve to progress through the system and to become productive citizens upon graduation. In many countries, diversity in the classroom is viewed positively because it will promote cultural awareness, understanding and assimilation. In some countries (e.g., the United States), low academic achievement is a national crisis and is being addressed in the schools by having students concentrate on core subjects (e.g., reading, mathematics) and either decreasing or eliminating free-time periods, fine arts programs such as music, and elective options. Based on brain research in language and music (e.g., memory and associative processes), the author proposes that educators can meet the needs of diverse students and improve academic achievement by integrating ethnic music from diverse populations with best practices for teaching basic skills and content area curricula. The type of music considered should consist of non-blended melodies and a variety of rhythms. Several strategies for integrating instructional activities and music are described. Introduction Countries around
the world have seen many changes in recent decades, and these
transformations have had significant impact on their politics, language,
religion, quality of life, the environment, and other areas that have
resulted in valid societal concerns and actions. One of the major areas
most affected in industrial and developing nations has been the
educational system. First,
and related to growing populations and immigration, educational policy
makers, professionals, and other stakeholders worldwide are addressing
the increasing number of students from culturally diverse backgrounds
and the teaching-learning challenges that occur in the classroom.
In many countries, student diversity is viewed positively because
it will promote cultural awareness, facilitate an understanding of
different cultures, and result in the assimilation of new cultural
elements into the dominant culture. Second, and related to national and
international interests, educators are designing and implementing
instructional programs to ensure that students are developing the
academic competencies they needed to progress through the educational
system and to become productive citizens upon graduation.
For some countries (e.g., the United States), a lag of growth in
or low academic achievement is viewed as a national critical issue and
educators are developing an effective educational system to achieve
state goals and to ensure that students are prepared to meet the growing
demands associated with advances in science, the changing workforce, and
the expanding global economy. In order to meet
the challenges of a diverse student population and to accomplish the
goal of improving academic achievement, educators are adding days to the
school calendar; implementing best practices that are guided by
standards, experimenting with different class scheduling formats (e.g.,
block schedules), and administering in the elementary and secondary
grades high-stakes tests for promotion and graduation purposes. Also, to
increase time on-task for developing basic skills and higher-order
thinking abilities, they are eliminating or reducing free-time periods
(e.g., recess, study hall), fine arts programs such as music, and
elective options. In
contrast, it is suggested that it may be more effective during
instructional lessons to link culturally diverse artifacts with
research-based practices to meet the needs of diverse students and to
improve academic achievement. Although this may be a slow and arduous
process for teachers, this can be easily accomplished by having teachers
make quantitative and qualitative changes to the instructional practices
they use through the school day. The
cultural artifact or element that should be considered is music, and the
integration of music into academic lessons will facilitate the
achievement of both cognitive and affective outcomes. The
Cultural Component Culture consists of
many aspects of a people’s identity including religion, language,
music, and other elements. Of these cultural aspects, language and music
are inseparable because language can be both verbal and nonverbal and
both means of expression can be carried out through music and musical
sounds (e.g., singing, intonation of voice, voice inflections, playing
musical instruments). Language is also the foundation of communication
that ties a society together and is a requisite ability for learning and
academic success. Furthermore, language and music together express
developments and changes within cultures ("The Music of
Africa," 2003), and for countries that are becoming culturally
diverse and pluralistic societies, they can also revive in students an
awareness of different cultures and improve cultural understanding and
culturally-related learning (Fung, 1995).
To this end and within the purposes of this article, the
following assumptions are made: 1.
Language and music are skills that can be developed. 2.
Language and music coexist in all cultures. 3
Language and music can be integrated. 4
Music is a means of expression. 5.
Different cultures respond to music in different ways. 6.
Music provides for and exists as an emotional intelligence that
may cause stronger connections with language. Musical expression
varies considerably among present cultures, and this is caused by the
historical influences where musical elements from other cultures have
been integrated into the ethnic musical expressions of the dominant
culture. By integrating other styles of music, people lose their ability
to differentiate their own distinct original music expression from
others. This may also cause
children, youths, and adults to demonstrate emotional and academic
inefficiency because these individuals have partially lost a sense of
self or their essence. Cultural essence
must be rekindled in the classroom, and in order to do this, one must
immerse oneself as a teacher or student in learning about the specific
elements of ethnic music using a particularistic focus. Applicable to
all countries, a particularistic focus de-emphasizes the dominant
culture and its complexity of integrated musical styles, songs, and
rhythms. It rejects a common culture among cultural groups and focuses
on cultural differences (Yudkin, 1993). Thus, forgotten ethnic music, as
part of one's cultural essence, can be reintroduced and implemented as a
positive tool and best practice within instructional procedures to
promote more efficient and universal achievement in the classroom.
Musical elements could be used not only to achieve literacy
outcomes as described in Music and Song in Reading Instruction
(see Web site http://reading.indiana.edu/ieo/bibs/musicsng.html)
but also mathematical goals and content area objectives (e.g., science,
history). The
Music Component Ethnic music varies
across and within continents. The basic, ethnic, or original music type
in certain parts of Africa, for example, is based on the drumbeat
("The Music of Africa," 2003). In both Ghana and Nigeria,
different drums are used. For instance, Mandinka drum troupe players
have individual drum performance and rhythms that become more complex as
a new drum is added (Campbell, 1990). Other rhythmic instruments may
accompany the basic drumbeat, and according to Campbell (1990), the
drumbeat of the Africans indicates that their cultural quality of music
is of a repetitive nature that can be noted in the modern musical
repetitiveness (e.g., RAP music in the United States). For traditional
West African cultures, music is essential for personal expression
(Campbell, 1990), and drum music is one method to accomplish this. In
contrast to drums, the people of Ghana uniquely utilize bells and bell
patterns to demonstrate rhythmic expression (Yudkin, 1993). The element
of rhythm is a basic and essential form within the music of Africa. Iranian music, in
contrast to the African rhythmic character, has a simple melodic line
that takes a specific form as its musical base. The player plays the
simple melody line and then uses it to compose melodic variations. All
of this may occur with little or full awareness by the player (Campbell,
1990), and the variations on the melodic line emphasize the
individuality of the person and that person’s interpretation of sound.
Having one's own interpretation increases creativity based on the
variations played, and this variation can be recalled later via
associations. The ancient music
form of raga in Northern India is another simple melodic line in
conformity with culture. In this region, it is considered inappropriate
for two people to speak at the same time; therefore, two simultaneously
played melodic lines would be inconsistent with cultural values. In
comparison to Iran, the musical line is kept consistent until the player
completes it. However, Southern India's ethnic music incorporates
musical blending (Poche, 1997-1999), and the inclusion of musical
blending suggests changes in the quality of culture. Thus, ethnic
melodic forms can be noted to change both among as well as within
countries, depending on cultural characteristics. Eastern Europeans
have typically used singing as their basic method of musical expression.
In both Russia and the Ukraine, ballads and epic songs would present
valiant deeds of heroes and historical national events (Lord, as cited
in Campbell, 1990). These are simple story lines with easy repetitive
melodies, and they could be used to teach history by utilizing the
associations of language and melodies, a method that has been used for
centuries. The
Brain Component Associations are
integral to brain development and subsequent learning and academic
achievement, and increasing integration through multiple neural
associations aids both memory and creativity.
Integration within best practices can also promote achievement,
and frequently this occurs by integrating only the verbal and written
components of the content taught (e.g., flashcard activities where words
are pronounced and presented at the same time). Musical components are
typically not integrated into instructional activities and curricula,
but they can be easily incorporated and would result in an enhanced use
of both cerebral hemispheres, since music is stored throughout the brain
(Altenmüller, 2004). Integration
effects have been observed in the brain by Jeffries, Fritz, and Braun
(2003). They conducted a study involving 20 male and female participants
that used both singing and speech to "over learn" a well known
song. The song was first
sung and then spoken at a natural rate and similar rhythm. PET scans
were taken during both activities, and the findings indicated that areas
in the left hemisphere were activated during speaking (both superior
temporal and supramarginal gyri, left frontal operculum).
Also, regions in the right hemisphere were more active during
singing (homologues of the left hemisphere but also areas that suggest
specificity for music such as the right prefrontal, temporal, paralimbic,
and subcortical areas.). Jeffries et al. (2003) reported that some
suppression may have occurred in the left hemisphere in the perisylvan
areas during singing, while these areas are usually more active in
speech production. The
opposite occurred in the right hemisphere during speech production, thus
suppressing some of the musical areas of the right hemisphere that
usually appear more active during speaking. Of special interest was the
finding that during singing, the area of the nucleus accumens was
active, an area also activated during pleasurable emotional states. This
finding suggests that pairing academic concepts and singing (i.e.,
singing subject matter) can induce a pleasant emotional state and
facilitate learning as a pleasurable process. It also suggests that
singing, which involves processing in specific dominant areas in both
hemispheres of the brain, is a pleasurable experience and promotes the
achievement of affective outcomes. The use of ethnic
music with simple melodies and rhythms becomes more significant, in
contrast to contemporary or Western music composed in the last few
centuries, because Jeffries et al.’s findings also suggest that
excessive music stimulation may interfere with the activation of brain
processes. Contemporary music, often with loud sounds and more complex
combination of instruments (e.g., orchestras, bands), over stimulates
the neural circuitry. The use of ethnic music with basic lines and
rhythms provides for a delicate balance between music and the activation
of brain processes that are foundational to effective learning. Music can also
assist in learning text forms, and presenting contextual and connected
text in a musical format facilitates the acquisition of skills and
concepts. Although connected text is easier to learn (Rainey &
Larson, 2002), the learning of unconnected text is promoted if it is
placed within a musical context. In a study conducted by Wolfe
and Hom (as cited in Ringgenberg, 2003), for example, the recall of
telephone numbers, considered to be unconnected text, was investigated.
Three groups of young children were participants, and they were taught
using familiar melodies, unfamiliar melodies, and no music respectively.
Wolfe and Hom’s findings indicated that the young children using
familiar melodies learned the telephone numbers faster. Rainey and Larsen
(2002) used older participants to investigate the effects of using
unconnected text and song lyrics, in comparison to prose. Unconnected
text was chosen because it is more difficult to learn. After a lengthy
review of the literature that included positive findings of pairing
music and connected text, they selected a sample of 79 students (mean
age of 19.7 years) that were exposed to the names of players on the 1948
World Series rosters (unconnected text). The names were presented in
song and prose, and the first exposure had the participants seeing the
names of the players on the computer screen with names either sung or in
prose. The second exposure consisted of only hearing the names through
computer speakers. The participants were tested one week after the
second exposure, and if the participants could not remember the names,
they were exposed to a second series of sessions to relearn the names.
The findings of this study suggest that there was no difference for the
initial learning of names, but the number of trials needed to relearn
the names was significantly less for the sung version. This could
suggest that another brain circuit was utilized at the same time, but
the neural circuitry was not sufficiently strong enough to warrant
significant observable differences during the first trial. These
findings are important because they add to the growing research base
that music can be a reinforcing tool for learning difficult content
(e.g., unconnected text). The connection
between learning and music has been well established, and according to
Jeffries et at. (2003), the various brain areas that are used during
both speech and musical activities, in addition to other areas specific
to speech and music in both hemispheres, indicate that the whole brain
is involved in differentiated and simultaneous learning. Jeffries et al.
concluded that depending on the content of the input, a neural overload
will result in some suppression of either the speech or musical areas of
the brain. For example, if too many melodies, timbres, or strong rhythms
need to be interpreted in certain hemispheric areas, the brain circuitry
has difficulty perceiving and processing the stimuli and “shuts
down.” Therefore, simple melodies and rhythms similar to ethnic music
and basic to specific cultures would be logical musical formats to use
during instruction. The cultural
essence of the students would also become stronger with the inclusion of
simple ethnic music that, in turn, would contribute to the development
of associations that result in increased integration and reinforcement.
Simple ethnic music, as an original part of cultural essence,
would become more important in the development of associations for
increased integration and reinforcement. This could result in
facilitated learning with subsequent achievement at a higher rate for
both connected and unconnected content within story or sentence form. Instructional
Strategies with Musical Components Various strategies
based on ethnic music and rhythms can be used by teachers to activate
multiple neurological processes (and subsequent associations) and
promote academic achievement. These strategies can be applied to any
content area to assist students in learning academic skills or concepts.
The following strategies are just a few of many possibilities teachers
can adopt or adapt with best practices. 1.
One researched strategy
reported by Ringgenberg (2003) involves creating unique songs with
simple melodies with story and story lines to help young children learn
vocabulary and story text. When creating a unique song, it is important
that age-appropriate words are chosen and set to a simple tune that is
short, repetitive, and with few notes that are close in pitch. This
method can be applied to basic skills and content area instruction and
can also be utilized to teach rules or procedures using ethnic songs and
instrumental music. This strategy is similar to the popularly used Kod<ly
method to teach music (Choksy, 1999), a procedure that can accelerate
literacy learning as well as other abilities (e.g., spatial and temporal
tasks) (Hurwitz, Wolff, Bortnick, & Kokos, 1975). The Kod<ly
method utilizes clapping rhythmical patterns and associates them with
folk songs based on simple melodies. These rhythmical patterns are
repetitive, and the repetitiveness will be especially attractive to
students from cultural backgrounds where music is also repetitive in its
rhythmical beats. 2.
Ethnic music can be used during literacy and content area
activities to enhance instruction and promote learning. This could be
implemented by pairing story plots, characters, or unconnected
vocabulary words from stories with musical elements.
For example, story plot climaxes could be associated with the
higher notes of a melody or faster drumbeat rhythms. 3.
Spelling words can be set to ethnic melodies or spelled according
to an ethnic drumbeat. Certain drumbeats made at a higher or lower pitch
and associated with different types of beats could stand for particular
vowel or consonant sounds (e.g., snare drum sweep, beat, bass drum
beat). For example, the letter sound of "g" could be
associated with a drum sound equivalent to the first "g" note
or tone above a middle "c" note. 4.
For spelling words and
content area vocabulary, various categories of words can be created.
Spelling words could be categorized and associated with a melody (e.g.,
four letter words, five letter words that follow a distinct
consonant-vowel pattern - leap, fear) or have related words from another
language (e.g., la pomme, l'orange, la fraise; moeder, vader, broer, zus).
For science vocabulary and mathematical number facts (e.g.,
multiplication), words and facts could be grouped by general or specific
categories. The use of categories facilitates memory processes, and the
combining of categories and music will increase learning by activating
multiple neural processes across the brain. Summary We are living in an
era where significant changes are occurring around the world, and one of
the major areas affected in industrial and developing nations is
education. Educational
policy makers, professionals, and other stakeholders are addressing
numerous changes, and two areas receiving their attention are the
growing diversity of student populations and the academic competencies
students need to move through the system and be productive citizens upon
graduation. A beneficial
effect of the increased focus on cultural diversity is the growing
awareness teachers and students are demonstrating about their own
cultural essence. A beneficial effect of the increased focus on academic
achievement is the time and resources that are being used to design and
implement effective instructional practices.
Included within cultural essence is one’s ethnic music, and the
contemporary move to eliminate fine arts such as music from the school
curriculum must be reconsidered. Therefore,
it is suggested that music, and specifically ethnic music, should be
integrated with best practices to teach basic skills and content areas.
Using ethnic music in combination with instructional activities
facilitates skill and concept development and produces pleasurable
emotional states. Learning basic skills and content can take place in a
variety of ways using ethnic music, and the literature presented and
strategies described exemplify how ethnic melodies and rhythms can
positively impact academic achievement. About
the Author:
Dr.
Johan W. van der Jagt is an
assistant professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at
Southeastern Louisiana University (USA).
His research interests include growth and development, brain-
based learning/ neuroscience, cognition, perception, severe dyslexia,
and teaching strategies for exceptional learners.
Contact the author at References Altenmüller, E.G.
(2004). Music in your head. Scientific American Special,14(1), 24-31. Campbell,
P. (1990). Crossculture perspectives of musical creativity. Music Educators
Journal, 76 (9), 43-46.
Retrieved September 1, 2003, from Ebscohost - Academic Search Premier
Database http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=9705151918&db=aph Chosky,
L. (1999). The kod<ly
method I: Comprehensive music education (3rd
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall, Inc. Fung,
C.J. (1995). Rationales for teaching world musics. Music Educators Journal,
82(1). 36-40. Retrieved
September 6, 2003, from Ebscohost -Academic Search Premier Database http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=9507104890&db=aph Hurwitz,
I., Wolff, P., Bortnick, B., & Kokas, K. (1975). Nonmusical effects
of the kod<ly
music curriculum in primary grade children. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 8(3),167-174. Retrieved September 6, 2003, from
Ebscohost - Academic Search Premier Database http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=4741275&db=aph Jeffries,
K.J., Fritz, J.B., & Braun, A.R. (2003). Words in melody: An H2150
PET study of brain activation during singing and speaking. NeuroReport,
14(5), 749-754) Retrieved September 6, 2003, from Ebscohost -
Academic Search Premier Database http://ejournals.ebsco.com/direct.asp?ArticleID=KU1LDYYFEQ9KFCLF2BDH Poche,
C. (1997-1999). Translated by Peter Lee in The Music of South Asia-Ethnomusicologist.
Retrieved on September 3, 2003, from Eyeneer Music Archives http://www.eyeneer.com/World/Sa/index.html- Rainey,
D., & Larsen, J. ( 2002). The effect of familiar melodies on initial
learning and long-term memory for unconnected text. Music Perception,
20(2), 173-186. Retrieved on September 6, 2003, from Ebscohost -
Academic Search Premier Database http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=8840698&db=aph Ringgenberg,
S. (2003). Music as a teaching tool: Creating story songs. Young
Children, 58(5), 76-79. The
music of Africa, International Music Archives.
Retrieved on September 3, 2003,
from Eyeneer Music Archiveshttp:// www.eyeneer.com/World/Af/index.html Yudkin,
J. (1993). Choosing pluralism or particularism. Music Educators Journal,
79(8), 46-48. Retrieved on
September 6, 2003, from Ebscohost -Academic Search Premier Database http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=1929408&db=aph
|
||
|